Tag: Regulatory

Financial Services Legislative and Regulatory Update – Week of June 10, 2013

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Leading the Past Week

And the beat goes on… Another week with the White House dealing with another issue, this time news that the national security apparatus is collecting and combing through telephone record metadata.  The widespread revelation about a data mining program that would make any hedge fund quant jealous drowned out more positive news of the week, including that the U.S. recovery continues its sluggish, yet positive pace with 175,000 jobs added in May.

And in an interesting comparison, as noted by the extraordinary team at Davis Polk, while the agencies were silent during the Month of May, and did not announce any new implementations of the Dodd-Frank Act, last week, three major implications of the implementation were announced.  First, the SEC publicly released its much anticipated and long awaited money market mutual fund rules.  Second, the Fed announced an almost equally anticipate interim final “push out” rule that provided significant relief to foreign-based banks with operations in the United States.  Finally, the FSOC made its first round of non-bank systemically important financial institutions (“SIFIs”) designations.

Legislative Branch

Senate

As Administration Announces New Iran Sanctions, Senate Banking Members Skeptical of their Effectiveness

On June 4th, the Senate Banking Committee held a hearing to review sanctions against Iran. Witnesses and lawmakers were split regarding the efficacy of the sanctions, some arguing that their effectiveness has been proved by Iran’s continued inability to fund nuclear enrichment and other arguing that the sanctions have not had the desired result of fundamentally changing the governance of the country. Specifically, Ranking Member Mike Crapo (R-ID) and Senators Bob Corker (R-TN), Bob Menendez (D-NJ), and Chuck Schumer (D-NY) all expressed concerns that the sanctions have not measurably changed Iran’s behavior. Witnesses included: David Cohen, Under Secretary for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence for the Treasury; Wendy Sherman, Under Secretary for Political Affairs with the Department of State; and Eric Hirschhorn, Under Secretary for Industry and Security with the Department of Commerce. The hearing comes as the Administration announced a new set of sanctions against the country. An Executive Order released June 3rd takes aim at Iran’s currency and auto sector in addition to expanding sanctions against private business supporting the government of Iran.

Senate Finance Committee Releases Income and Business Entities Tax Reform Working Paper

On June 6th, the Senate Finance Committee released the latest in a series of options papers outlining tax reform options for individual and business income taxes and payroll taxes. The proposal outlines three options for tackling the integration of individual and corporate taxes, such as making the corporate tax a withholding tax on dividends and adjusting capital gains taxes for businesses to match the individual Code. In addition, the paper discusses ways in which to reach a long-term solution for taxing derivatives.

Senate Banking Approves Nomination to Ex-Im Bank

On June 6th, the Senate Banking Committee voted 20 to 2 in favor of Fred Hochberg to continue to head the Export-Import Bank. Senator Tom Coburn (R-OK) and Senator Patrick Toomey (R-PA) both voted against the nomination. Hochberg’s nomination now moves to the full Senate where, though he is expected to be confirmed, he must be approved before July 20th or else the bank would lose its quorum for voting on items.  During the same executive session, the Committee approved by voice vote the National Association of Registered Agents and Brokers Reform Act of 2013 (S. 534) which would make it easier for insurance agents to sell state-regulated insurance in multiple states.

Senator Brown Calls on CFPB to Target Debt Collectors

On June 4th, Senator Sherrod Brown (D-OH) wrote to the CFPB, urging the Bureau to enact rules to curb customer abuses by debt collectors. In a statement accompanying the letter, Brown, Chairman of the Senate Banking Subcommittee on Financial Institutions and Consumer Protection, said he intends to hold a hearing in the next month which will shine a light on bad practices and consumer abuses in the industry. The Dodd-Frank Act gives the CFPB authority to enforce and enact rules under the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act (FDCPA). Brown’s letter urged Director Cordray to pursue debt collectors as soon as possible, as the Bureau would lose its oversight authority in this space should Cordray’s nomination expire and a director not be in place.

Senate Banking Committee To Consider Flood Insurance As Soon As July

In remarks made on June 6th, Chairman of the Banking Committee Tim Johnson (D-SD) said the panel will hold hearings as soon as July to consider national flood insurance affordability. The announcement comes as a number of lawmakers express concerns that rate increases in the 2012 reauthorization are not affordable.

Senate Banking Subcommittee Looks into the State of the Middle Class

On June 6th, the Senate Banking Subcommittee on Economic Policy held a hearing titled “The State of the American Dream: Economic Policy and the Future of the Middle Class.” It was Senator Jeff Merkley’s first hearing as Chair of the Subcommittee, he said he wanted to feature witnesses whose voices were not normally heard in committee hearings and public policy debates. The witnesses included: Ms. Diedre Melson; Mr. John Cox; and Ms. Pamela Thatcher, who were subjects of the documentary movie American Winter; Dr. Atif Mian, Professor of Economics and Public Policy at Princeton University; Ms. Amy Traub, Senior Policy Analyst for Demos; Mr. Nick Hanauer with Second Avenue Partners; and Mr. Steve Hill, Executive Director of Nevada Governor’s Office of Economic Development.

House of Representatives

House to Consider Multiple Financial Services Bills Next Week

Next week the House is set to consider and vote on four separate bills dealing with the Financial Industry.  Three of the these bills, The Business Risk Mitigation and Price Stabilization Act (H.R. 634), The Reverse Mortgage Stabilization Act (H.R. 2167), the Swap Data Repository and Clearing House Indemnification Correction Act (H.R. 742) will be brought up on the suspension calendar, which is generally used for non-controversial measures.  The other bill, the Swap Jurisdiction Certainty Act (H.R. 1256) will be brought forward under a rule, which may allow for amendments to the bill that directs the SEC and CFTC to issue joint rules on swaps and security-based international swaps.  All are expected to pass the House.

Financial Services Subcommittee Examines Role of Proxy Advisory Firms

On June 5th, the House Financial Services Subcommittee on Capital Markets and Government Sponsored Enterprises met to examine the growing reliance on proxy advisory firms in proxy solicitations and corporate governance. Specifically, the Subcommittee sought to investigate the effect proxy advisory firms have on corporate governance standards, the market power of these firms, potential conflicts of interest, and SEC proposals seeking to modernize corporate governance standards. During the hearing Subcommittee Chairman Scott Garrett (R-NJ) voiced concern that institutions are overly reliant on proxy advisory firms in determining how to cast shareholder votes and questioned whether conflicts of interest and voting recommendations based on one-size-fits all policies affect shareholder value.

Witnesses at the hearing included: former SEC Chairman Harvey Pitt,  Timothy Bartl, President of the Center on Executive Compensation, Niels Holch, Executive Director of Shareholder Communications Coalition, Michael McCauley, Senior Offices for Investment Programs and Governance of the Florida State Board of Administration, Jeffrey Morgan, President and CEO of the National Investor Relations Institute, Darla Stuckey, Senior Vice President of the Society of Corporate Secretaries & Governance Professionals, and Lynn Turner, Managing Director of LitiNomics. The hearing comes as SEC Commission Daniel Gallagher recognized that lawmakers and regulators need to re-examine the role of advisory firms in the corporate governance matters as “no one should be able to outsource their fiduciary duties.”

Lawmakers Introduce Legislation Targeting Foreign Cyber Criminals

On June 6th, House Intelligence Committee Chairman Mike Rogers (R-MI) along with Representative Tim Ryan (D-OH) and Senator Ron Johnson (D-WI) introduced legislation that would impose visa and financial penalties on foreign cyber criminals who target American businesses. Specifically, the measure would deny foreign agents engaged in cybercrime from apply for visas or, if they reside in the U.S., would revoke visas and freeze financial assets. The bill also calls for the Department of Justice to bring more economic espionage criminal cases against offending foreign actors.

Online Gambling Legislation Introduced

On June 6th, Representative Peter King (R-NY) introduced legislation to create broad federal Internet gambling regulations and allow all online gambling with the exception of betting on sports and where Indian tribes opt not to participate. The legislation would also establish an office of Internet gaming housed within the Treasury. Following a 2011 ruling by the Justice Department that the 1961 Wire Act does not ban online gambling, several states, including Delaware, New Jersey, and Nevada, have moved forward with creating intra-state online gaming operations.  The movement at the state level has taken some of the momentum out of federal legalization efforts.

Executive Branch

Treasury

FSOC Selects First Group of Non-Banks to be SIFIs

On June 3rd, the Financial Stability Oversight Council (FSOC) voted on the preliminary list of systemically important financial institutions (SIFIs) which will be subject to additional regulation by the Fed. This additional regulation will include new stress tests to monitor stability, additional capital requirements, and the need to create living wills in the event of resolution. While the Council did not release the names or the number of non-banks that have been selected, several firms have announced that they have received notice from the FSOC regarding their designation, including GE Capital, Prudential Financial, and AIG. Now that designations have been made, companies selected will have 30 days to request a hearing to contest the designation. While Secretary Jack Lew called the designations an “important step forward,” Chairman of the House Financial Services Committee Jeb Hensarling criticized the move, saying perpetuating non-banks as “too big to fail” will only put taxpayers on the hook for another bailout.

Federal Reserve

Fed Approves Final Rule Clarifying Treatment of Foreign Banks Under Push-Out Rule

On June 5th, the Fed approved an interim final rule clarifying the treatment of uninsured U.S. branches of foreign banks under the Dodd-Frank Act swaps push-out measure. Dodd-Frank calls for banks to separate certain swap trading activities from divisions that are backed by federal deposit insurance or which have access to the Fed discount window. Under the clarification, the Fed states uninsured U.S. branches of foreign banks will be treated as insured depository institutions and that entities covered by the rule, including U.S. branches of foreign banks, can apply for a transition period of up to 24 months to comply with the push out provisions. The interim final rule also states that state member banks and uninsured state branches of foreign banks may apply for the transition period. The Institute of International Bankers, which represents international banks operating in the U.S., praised the Fed for offering clarity on a “widely acknowledged drafting error in the original legislation.”

Fed Vice Chairman Appears to Support Stronger Capital Rules for Large Banks

Speaking in Shanghai last week, Fed Vice Chairman Janet Yellen said that it may be necessary for regulators to impose capital requirements even higher than those set forth in the Basel III agreement. Agreeing with Fed Governors Daniel Tarullo and Jeremy Stein, Yellen said “fully offsetting any remaining “too big to fail” subsidies and forcing full internalization of the social costs of a SIFI failure may require either a steeper capital surcharge curve or some other mechanism for requiring that additional capital be held by firms that potentially pose the greatest risks to financial stability.” To that end, Yellen noted that the Fed and FDIC are “considering the merits” of requiring systemically significant firms to hold minimum levels of long-term unsecured debt to absorb losses and support orderly liquidation. Yellen who, is seen by many as the frontrunner for Fed Chairman following Bernanke’s term, is starting to generate a lot more attention as we come closer to the end of Bernanke’s reign.  However, she is not the only member of the Fed espousing this policy.  In a speech later in the week, Philadelphia Fed President Charles Plosser echoed Yellen’s sentiments, saying Dodd-Frank and other efforts to end “too big to fail” may not be “sufficient.” Plosser argued that current capital requirements should be made more stringent but also simpler by relying on a leverage ratio rather than the current practice of risk weighting.

SEC

SEC Proposes Long-Anticipated Money Market Mutual Fund Overhaul

On June 5th, the SEC released a proposal which would change the way the $2.6 trillion money market mutual fund industry is regulated. After months of internal disagreement within the SEC, the Commission voted unanimously to propose the plan. The goal of the proposal is to avoid future runs on the market, like that which occurred during the financial crisis, in tandem with ensuring that the industry still function as a viable investment vehicle. The Commission’s proposal sets out two alternative options for reform which could be enacted alone or in combination. The first would require institutional prime money market funds to operate with a floating net asset value (NAV). Notably, retail and government funds would still be allowed to operate with a fixed-NAV. The second alternative would require nongovernment funds whose liquid assets fell below 15 percent of total assets to impose a 2 percent liquidity fee on all redemptions. If this were to occur, a money market fund’s board would be permitted to suspend redemptions for up to 30 days. The proposal also calls for prompt public disclosure if a fund dips below the 15 percent weekly liquid asset threshold.

Coalition of Investment and Consumer Interests Call for Strong Uniform Fiduciary Standard

In a letter sent to the SEC on June 4th, a coalition of investment and consumer groups called on the Commission to enact a uniform fiduciary standard that would require broker-dealers and investment advisers to act in consumers’ best interest. The letter, signed by organizations such as AARP, the Consumer Federation of America, and the Investment Adviser Association, is in response to an SEC request for information (RFI) requesting input on regarding the possible extension of a fiduciary duty to broker-dealers. The groups assert that, the fiduciary standard set forth in the RFI is weak compared to current law and “seems to contemplate little more than the existing suitability standard supplemented by some conflict of interest disclosures.”

District Court Hears Challenge to SEC Critical Minerals Rule

On June 7th, the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit heard a challenge brought on behalf of the American Petroleum Institute, the Chamber of Commerce, and others to the SEC’s critical minerals rule which requires companies to disclose payments made to foreign governments. Industry argues that the rule is overly burdensome and could result in proprietary information being shared with competitors. However, supporters of the rule, including Oxfam America, assert that the measure will increase transparency and help combat human rights abuses.

FDIC

FDIC Approves Non-Bank Resolution Final Rule

On June 4th, the FDIC approved a final rule establishing the criteria which will be used to determine which non-bank financial firms will be required to comply with the FDIC’s authority to liquidate large failing companies. The rule, which lays out factors used to determine if a company is “predominately engaged in financial activity,” requires companies where at least 85 percent of revenues are classified as financial in nature by the Bank Holding Company Act to comply. The FDIC’s rule closely resembles a final proposal by the Fed which established criteria for non-banks to be flagged for additional supervision under Dodd-Frank.

CFPB

CFPB Finalizes Ability-to-Repay Rule Amendments

On May 29th, the CFPB finalized rules designed to increase access to credit through exemptions and modifications to the Bureau’s ability-to-repay rule. The ability-to-repay rule, which was finalized in January 2013, requires that new mortgages comply with basic consumer protection requirements that are meant to ensure consumers do not take out loans they cannot pay back through Qualified Mortgages (QMs). In response to public and Congressional concerns about the scope of the rule, the Bureau’s finalized rules exempt certain nonprofit creditors and community-based lenders who service low- and moderate-income borrowers, facilitate lending by small creditors, banks and credit unions with less than $2 billion in assets and which make 500 or fewer mortgages loans per year, and establish how to calculate loan origination compensation. In announcing the amendments, the CFPB also delayed the effective date of provisions prohibiting creditors from financing certain credit insurance premiums in connection with certain mortgage loans. Currently, the effective date is January 10, 2014; however, the Bureau plans to solicit comment on an appropriate effective date for proposed credit insurance clarifications.

Bureau Issues Mortgage Rule Exam Guidelines

On June 4th, the CFPB issued an update to its exam procedures based on the new Truth in Lending Act (TILA) and the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (ECOA) mortgage regulations finalized in January. The guidance addresses questions about how mortgage companies will be examined such as for: setting qualification and screening standards for loan originators; prohibiting steering incentives; prohibiting “dual compensation,” protecting borrowers of higher-priced loans; prohibiting the waiver of consumer rights; prohibiting mandatory arbitration; requiring lenders to provide appraisal reports and valuations; and prohibiting single premium credit insurance.

CFPB Announced Further Study on Pre-Dispute Arbitration in Financial Products

In a notice and request for comment published on June 7th, the CFPB announced it will conduct phone surveys of credit card holders as part of its study of mandatory pre-dispute arbitration agreements. While Dodd-Frank gave the CFPB authority to ban the use of arbitration in mortgages, Section 1028(a) of the Dodd-Frank Act requires the Bureau to conduct a study before taking additional action to limit arbitration in other financial products. According to the notice, the survey will investigate “the extent of consumer awareness of dispute resolution provisions in their agreements with credit card providers” and consumers’ assessments of these tools.

International

IMF Working Paper Calls for Taxes on Large Banks to Level Playing Field, End “Too Big to Fail”

In a working paper published at the end of May, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), suggesting that large banks in advanced economies have more incentive to take risks due to cheaper funding sources, proposed taxing large banks to “extract their unfair competitive advantage.” The authors of the paper argue that such as tax would level the playing field from the perspective of competitive policy and reduce excess incentives of banks to grow, reducing the problem of “too big to fail” and increasing financial stability. Specifically, the paper found that the implicit guarantee that “too big to fail” banks will be bailed out in the event of failure or crisis can lead to a funding advantage of up to 0.8 percent a year. In related news, On June 5th, Representative Michael Capuano (D-MA) introduced legislation (H.R. 2266) which would require certain systemically important institutions to account for the financial benefit they receive as a result of the expectations on the part of shareholders, creditors, and counterparties that the government will bail them out in the event of failure.

Upcoming Hearings

On Wednesday, June 12th at 10am, in 1100 Longworth, the Trade Subcommittee of House Ways and Means Committee will hold a hearing titled “U.S.-Brazil Trade and Investment Relationship: Opportunities and Challenges.”

On Wednesday, June 12th at 10am, in 2128 Rayburn, the House Financial Services Committee will hold a hearing titled “Beyond GSEs: Examples of Successful Housing Finance Models without Explicit Government Guarantees.”

On Wednesday, June 12th at 2pm, in 2128 Rayburn, the Capital Markets and Government Sponsored Enterprises Subcommittee of House Financial Services Committee will hold a hearing on proposals intended to support capital formation.

On Thursday, June 13th at 10am, in 538 Dirksen, the Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee will hold a hearing titled “Lessons Learned From the Financial Crisis Regarding Community Banks.”

On Thursday, June 13th at 10am, in 2128 Rayburn, the Monetary Policy and Trade Subcommittee of House Financial Services Committee will hold a hearing on changes to the Export-Import Bank.

On Thursday, June 13th at 1pm, in 2128 Rayburn, the Housing and Insurance Subcommittee of House Financial Services Committee will hold a hearing on international insurance issues.

Fourth Circuit Reverses District Court and Trend, Finding Death from Driving While Intoxicated to be An “Accident”

Womble Carlyle

In Johnson v. Am. United Life Ins. Co., 2013 U.S. App. LEXIS 10528 (4th Cir. May 24, 2013), the Fourth Circuit reversed the District Court’s holding, 2012 U.S. Dist. Lexis 32718 (M.D.N.C. 2012), a decision we reported in March of last year.  In the District Court, Magistrate Judge Patrick Auld concluded that a death resulting from driving while intoxicated, under the circumstances of the case, was not an “accident” for purposes of an Accidental Death & Disability (AD&D) benefit under an ERISA-qualified employee benefit plan.  The Fourth Circuit Court’s reversal illustrates again the struggle to define the word “accident” in a situation when a driver intentionally becomes highly intoxicated and intentionally drives, knowing the inherent dangers, yet probably not intending to crash, sustain injury or die.

In Johnson, a participant of an employee benefit plan insured by AUL died after his truck left the road at high speed, hit a sign, and overturned several times. The post-mortem toxicology report showed a blood-alcohol concentration (BAC) of .289, more than three times the legal limit.

As did Judge Auld in the District Court below, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals explored a spectrum of interpretations of the word “accident.”  AUL argued for the definition adopted in Eckleberry v. ReliaStar Life Ins. Co. 469 F. 3d 340 (4th Circ. 2006), in which the Court interpreted the policy’s definition of “accident” to exclude losses from death or injury that were “reasonably foreseeable.”  Under the Eckleberry test, AUL argued, Mr. Johnson’s death was not the result of an accident because injury or death from driving while intoxicated was reasonably foreseeable.  The Fourth Circuit rejected AUL’s argument, distinguishing Eckleberry in two pivotal ways.  First, unlike the policy in the Eckleberry case, AUL’s policy did not empower it with discretionary authority sufficient to trigger the “abuse of discretion” standard of review.  Secondly, the plan in Eckleberry defined “accident” to suggest a “reasonable foreseeability” test, while, by contrast the term “accident” was not defined in AUL’s policy.  (This is not uncommon. As the Court recognized in the seminal case, Wickman v. Northwestern Nat’l Ins. Co., 908 F. 2d 1077, 1087 (1st Cir. 1990),  the word “accident” eludes articulation.)

Reviewing AUL’s denial de novo, the Johnson Court characterized the term “accident” as ambiguous because it was undefined, and applied the contra proferentum doctrine, (cf.  Carden v. Aetna Life Ins. Co., 559 F.3d 256, 260 (4th Cir. S.C. 2009) in which the Court held that the doctrine did not to apply in a review for abuse of discretion.).

Moving on from Eckleberry, the Court considered two other interpretations that were  skewed “against the drafter” more than the “reasonable foreseeability test.  The first was the test espoused by Wickman, supra:  When there was no evidence of the deceased’s actual (subjective) intentions and expectations (as is often the case), the Court asks the question of whether a reasonable person would have viewed the injury as “highly likely to occur” as a result of the deceased’s intentional conduct.  If so, then the loss was not the result of an accident.

Secondly, the Court considered the definition of “accident” under N.C.G.S. § 58-3-30(b), the test adopted by Judge Auld in the District Court.  Under this statute, which uses an “accidental result” test, a loss resulting from an intentional, voluntary act is still accidental if the injury (or result) is unanticipated and unexpected, unless the result was “substantially certain” to occur from the actions.

When Judge Auld applied this test, he found that “a crash by a speeding driver in Mr. Johnson’s [intoxicated] condition [is] as much an anticipated and expected result as a bullet hitting the head of someone who chooses to play Russian Roulette,” (giving a nod to the Wickman Court’s illustration of an unreasonable expectation of survival, even if death were not actually intended.)  However, the Court of Appeals came to the opposite conclusion: While Eckleberry’s “reasonable foreseeable” test would most likely exclude coverage here, evidence of driving while intoxicated, even at a BAC level of .289, by itself, did not establish that the insured’s death was “substantially certain,” under the statute’s definition, or even “highly likely,” under the Wickman test.  The Court’s conclusion was based upon statistics published by the CDC that an intoxicated driver’s chances of a fatal crash are 1 in 9,128.  (The other 9,127 apparently survive.)

Query:  How many drunk drivers with a BAC of .289 make it home safely?

SEC Money Market Reform

Katten Muchin

On June 5, the Securities and Exchange Commission proposed major reforms to money market regulations that would significantly alter the way money market funds (MMFs) operate. The proposal sets forth two main alternative reforms, which may be adopted alone or in combination in a single reform package. The first proposed alternative would require all institutional prime MMFs to transition from operating with a stable share price to operating with a floating net asset value. The second generally would require every non-government MMF to impose a 2% redemption fee if its level of weekly liquid assets falls below 15% of its total assets, unless its board determines that the MMF’s best interest would be served by eliminating the fee or having a lower fee. The two proposed reforms are intended to, among other things, improve risk transparency in MMFs and reduce the impact of substantial redemptions upon MMFs during times of stress. The proposal also includes reforms designed to enhance MMFs’ disclosure, reporting, stress testing, and diversification practices.

For additional information, read more.

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Eleventh Hour Fiscal Cliff Deal – What Does it Mean for Canadians?

Altro Levy LogoJust hours before midnight on New Years Eve, the US Senate hammered out a tentative deal to avoid sending the country over the Fiscal Cliff. Yesterday, a reluctant, Republican-controlled House of Representatives has also blessed the plan, which deals with many of the major tax issues at stake, while pushing back the spending issues to later into the new year.

The “Fiscal Cliff”, a term coined by Ben Bernanke, the Chairman of the Federal Reserve, refers to the cumulative effect of spending cuts and tax increases, which were scheduled to occur January 1, 2013 as a result of the expiry of several pieces of legislation. The issue has received a great amount of press in recent months, as commentators continued to hope that Congress would agree on compromise legislation to soften the economic blow. In this post, we will outline the primary cross border tax impacts on Canadians.

Federal Estate Tax

For Canadians with interests in the US, the primary consequence of going over the Fiscal Cliff would relate to the federal estate tax. The Canada – US Tax Treaty allows Canadian residents to piggy-back onto some estate tax exemptions that are available to US citizens and residents. In particular, in 2012, there was a $5.12 million exemption from estate tax, such that only estates worth greater than that amount would end up paying taxes, and the maximum rate was capped at 35%. The looming Fiscal Cliff threatened to bring us back to the $1 million exemption amount at maximum rate of 55%, which was in effect when President Bush took office in 2001. Note that this is not a capital gains tax on death, as we have in Canada. This tax applies to the fair market value of assets at the time of death.

The good news for Canadians is that the deal will extend the $5.12 million exemption amount, which will increase with inflation. The maximum rate will increase to 40% on a permanent basis. As a consequence, if a Canadian owns US assets (such as real estate or US securities) worth more than $60,000, and passes away with a worldwide estate valued in excess of $5.25 million, some US estate tax is likely going to be payable. It is important to note that the worldwide estate value includes everything: real estate, investment accounts, RRSPs, business interest, even the proceeds of life insurance. However, the tax is only applied against the value of the US situated assets, and some tax credits ought to be available under the Tax Treaty thanks to the extension of the high exemption amount.

Nonetheless, it remains worthwhile for high-net worth Canadians to evaluate their estate tax exposure and hold US assets in Cross Border structures that minimize or eliminate the potential for US estate tax liability.

Income and Capital Gains Tax

Most of the press on the Fiscal Cliff has centered on the increases in income tax rates. This issue is very unlikely to cause Canadian residents much concern, even though US income tax may be payable. Since Canadian residents pay Canadian tax on their world wide income, any US source income earned by a Canadian will be added on the top of their Canadian income, such that it will be taxed at a relatively high marginal rate. In contrast, that same US sourced income will be taxed in the US at the lower marginal rates, and Canada will give a credit for US tax paid. As such, as long as the marginal rate in the US is lower than the marginal rate in Canada on the same income (which it clearly will), increases in US income tax rates will not be noticed by Canadians when the dust settles at the end of a tax year.

One expiring tax cut that was not renewed under the Eleventh Hour Deal relates to the long-term capital gains tax rate on the disposition of capital assets. This is one tax increase that will be felt by some Canadians. In Canada, we pay regular income tax on half of the capital gain. As such, if the gain pushes a taxpayer into the top marginal rate in Canada, the effective capital gains tax rate ranges from approximately 19.5% in Alberta to almost 25% in Quebec. In 2012, the US federal capital gains tax for individuals who had held an asset for longer than one year was capped at 15% on the gain. That rate has increased to 20% with the Fiscal Cliff Deal (high income earners will pay 23.8% including an “Obamacare” surcharge). Where state-level tax also applies, the US capital gains tax may well exceed that owed in Canada, resulting in a higher overall tax burden. For example, California has a state capital gains tax rate of 9.3%. Therefore, any Canadian selling a California property will owe more tax to the US (combined rate of 29.3%) than to Canadian jurisdictions. Other states have a lower rate of tax, such that the effective US rate may not exceed the Canadian rates. For example, Florida does not impose a capital gains tax on individuals, trusts, or limited partnerships.

Market Volatility

The other aspect of the Fiscal Cliff that may affect Canadians is the most difficult to anticipate. Many economics were predicting that the overall effect of the Fiscal Cliff would send the US back into recession. This was the concern that prompted Bernanke and others to characterize the issue as a ‘cliff’ connoting catastrophic economic consequences. While the economy should respond favorably to the agreement that Congress passed, there are many pressing issues that were simply deferred in this week’s deal. Many of the spending cuts, which are thought to jeopardize the economic recovery, were pushed back two months for Congress to resolve later on. If worst fears are realized, the value of many US assets may decline as economic conditions generally erode.

As cross border tax and estate planners, we often advise Canadian clients to consider repositioning their investment portfolios to exclude directly held US securities because of the US estate tax exposure they represent. If you believe that the fiscal transition will negatively impact the value of US securities, it may be a good time to discuss repositioning with your investment advisor.

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Don’t Overlook The Gems In Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) Files

Barnes & Thornburg

A recent decision out of a Louisiana federal court demonstrates that all employers who are sued in cases where the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) handled an administrative charge should promptly send out a FOIA request to obtain the EEOC’s file.

In Williams v. Cardinal Health Systems 200, LLC, a female employee reported to her employer that her husband had gotten into a fistfight with one of her co-workers, allegedly because the co-worker was sending her inappropriate text messages. The employee was fired shortly thereafter on Sept. 26, 2011.

Nine months later in June of 2012, a lawyer wrote to the employer on behalf of the former employee, suggesting that his client had suffered sexual harassment. The lawyer also suggested that the employer had retaliated against the employee for complaining of the sexual harassment when it fired her. A few weeks later, the lawyer helped the employee fill out and submit an EEOC intake questionnaire form.

After receiving the questionnaire, the EEOC advised the former employee that her questionnaire was incomplete, and that, among other things, she needed to sign and verify her allegations. Her lawyer eventually provided the necessary information, and the EEOC sent out a notice of charge of discrimination to the employer in October 2012, followed by a notice of right to sue. The employee then filed a lawsuit against the company in December 2012.

The employer filed a motion to dismiss the lawsuit, arguing that the employee had waited too long to bring her claim. The court noted that the employee had 300 days from the date of the alleged retaliation—or until July 22, 2012, to raise her claims with the EEOC. She had contacted the EEOC before then, but her questionnaire was incomplete. The charging party and her lawyer did not complete it before July 22. Thus, her claims were time-barred and her case dismissed.

The case provides a good example of an important litigation tool. The dismissal hinged on the EEOC’s file, which proved when the employee submitted her questionnaire, what the questionnaire contained, how the EEOC responded, and when and how her lawyer supplied the additional information. Employers typically are not privy to these communications and would not even know about them unless they obtain a copy of the agency’s file. And there is the lesson: all employers who are sued should make sure to request the EEOC or charging agency file as soon as possible. You never know what gems might be hiding in there just waiting for you to find them.

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What Are the EB-5 Permanent Residence Requirements?

GT Law

For investors seeking lawful permanent residence through the EB-5 program, the first step in the process is to file Form I-526, Immigration Petition for Alien Entrepreneur, together with accompanying evidence in support of the program’s requirements with USCIS.  USCIS evaluates and adjudicates I‑526 petitions by reviewing these criteria:

1. A New Commercial Enterprise Has Been Established.  An EB-5 investor must evidence that their investment was into an “enterprise” that is “new.”  So what is a “new commercial enterprise?”  It is any for-profit activity established after November 29, 1990 formed for the ongoing conduct of lawful business including, but not limited to, a sole proprietorship, partnership (whether limited or general), holding company, joint venture, corporation, business trust, or other entity which may be publicly or privately owned.  This definition includes a commercial enterprise consisting of a holding company and its wholly-owned subsidiaries, provided that each such subsidiary is engaged in a for-profit activity formed for the ongoing conduct of a lawful business, but it does not include a noncommercial activity such as owning and operating a personal residence.

In the regional center context, the new commercial enterprise is the fund where the alien invests.  Usually the fund takes the form of a Limited Partnership or Limited Liability Company.  In the direct, non-regional center context, the new commercial enterprise is the business where the alien invests and the business that creates the jobs for U.S. workers.

2. Investment of the Requisite Amount of Capital.  An EB-5 petition must be supported by evidence that the petitioner has invested the minimum required capital.  In the regional center context, if the project creating the jobs is located in a “targeted employment area” then the minimum amount of investment is $500,000.  In the direct investment context, if the new commercial enterprise is located in a “targeted employment area” then the minimum amount of investment is $500,000.  A “targeted employment area” is either: (1) an area of high unemployment that has at least 150% of the national unemployment rate; or (2) a rural area outside of a Metropolitan Statistical Area with a population of less than 20,000.  If the new commercial enterprise (in the direct context) or project (in the regional center context) is located outside of a targeted employment area, then the minimum amount of investment is $1,000,000.

USCIS expects the investor’s funds to be irrevocably committed to the enterprise.  The funds must be “at risk” and used by the new commercial enterprise to create employment.

3. Lawful Source of Capital.  Funds used for the EB-5 investment must be earned lawfully.  The investor must show the full source of the $500,000 or $1,000,000 investment and then trace those funds from the investor abroad into the new commercial enterprise.  Common sources of funds are salary earnings, distributions from businesses or investments, sale of property, mortgage of personal assets owned by the investor, or gifts from third parties.  If the investor receives a gift as the source of funds, the giftor must fully trace his or her funds that ultimately became the investment.  Funds earned or obtained in the United States while the investor was out of status are not deemed to be lawfully acquired.

4. Active Involvement in the New Commercial Enterprise.  The investor is expected to participate in the management of the new commercial enterprise either through day-to-day management or by assisting in the formulation of the enterprise’s business policy.  The investor cannot have a purely passive role in regard to the investment.

In the regional center context, investors in an EB-5 enterprise organized as a limited partnership usually have the rights and duties accorded to limited partners under the state’s Limited Partnership Act.  The same is true for a limited liability company.  This level of involvement is sufficient for EB-5 purposes.  In the direct investment context, the investor can manage the enterprise or formulate policy for the business by acting as a member of the Board of Directors or exercising voting control over the business.

5. Employment Creation.  The new commercial enterprise must create not fewer than ten (10) full-time positions for qualifying employees for each EB-5 investor.  In the direct investment context with no regional center affiliation, the 10 jobs created must be full time (35+ hours per week), permanent, and for W-2 employees of the new commercial enterprise.  Independent contractors do not count.  Additionally, the positions must be filled by qualifying employees, meaning a United States citizen, a lawfully admitted permanent resident, or other immigrant lawfully authorized to be employed in the United States including, but not limited to, a conditional resident, a temporary resident, an asylee, a refugee, or an alien remaining in the United States under suspension of deportation. This definition does not include the alien entrepreneur, the alien entrepreneur’s spouse, sons, or daughters, or any nonimmigrant alien.  At the time of the I-526 petition, if the positions are not yet created, the comprehensive business plan must contain a full description of the hiring plan to show the positions that will be created and when those positions will be filled.

In the regional center context, to show that the new commercial enterprise meets the statutory employment creation requirement, the petition must be accompanied by evidence that the investment will create full-time positions for not fewer than 10 persons either directly or indirectly through revenues generated from increased exports resulting from the Pilot Program.  According to USCIS, indirect jobs are those jobs shown to have been created collaterally by the project as a result of capital invested in a commercial enterprise affiliated with a regional center. The number of indirect jobs created through an EB-5 investor’s capital investment is based upon a business plan and a detailed economic analysis.  The EB-5 petition must contain evidence, in the form of an economic report, to show that 10 indirect jobs will be created for each investor in the project.

If these requirements are met, the I-526 petition should be approved.  If the investor and his family are abroad, they will apply for immigrant visas at a U.S. Consulate abroad.  When they enter the U.S. on the visas, they will become conditional permanent residents of the United States.  If the investor and his family are in the U.S., they may be eligible to adjust their status to conditional permanent residents.  Conditional permanent residence is granted for two years, and at the end of two years, the investor and his family must file Form I-829 to remove those conditions.  At that time, the investor must show the new commercial enterprise was sustained during the period of conditional permanent residence, their investment was sustained during the period of conditional permanent residence, and the 10 jobs were created.

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“Lawfully Made Under This Title” – The New, Global Reach of U.S. Copyright Law’s “First Space” Doctrine

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The U.S. Copyright Act grants a copyright owner certain exclusive rights, including the right to distribute copies by sale or other transfer of ownership. 17 U.S.C. § 106(3). But while these exclusive rights are extensive, they are not limitless. Section 109(a), for one, sets forth the “first sale” doctrine:

“Notwithstanding the provisions of section 106(3), the owner of a particular         copy…lawfully made under this title…is entitled, without the authority of the copyright      owner, to sell or otherwise dispose of the possession of that copy.” 17 U.S.C. § 109(a).

In effect, Section 109(a) exhausts the distribution right by permitting the owner of a particular copy to dispose of that copy as she wishes.

Notably, however, the first sale doctrine is itself qualified in that it only applies to copies “lawfully made under this title.” 17 U.S.C. § 109(a) (emphasis added). That this language applies to copyrighted works made and distributed in the U.S. is clear enough. A more difficult question is to what extent the first sale doctrine applies to works produced and/or acquired abroad.

The U.S. Supreme Court partly addressed Section 109(a)’s reach in Quality King Distributors, Inc. v. L’anza Research International, Inc., 523 U.S. 135 (1998). In Quality King, the copyrighted works were manufactured in the U.S., but first sold abroad at prices 35% to 40% less than identical U.S. products. Some of the discounted foreign products were then imported back into the U.S. and sold to unauthorized retailers. The copyright owner sued alleging violation of the Copyright Act’s importation provision, 17 U.S.C. § 602(a)(1) (then §602(a)), which makes importation of a copyrighted work without the authority of the copyright owner an infringement of the distribution right. The Supreme Court, however, found that the first sale doctrine exhausts the copyright owner’s right to prohibit importation of U.S. produced works first sold abroad. In other words, the owner of a copy of a U.S. produced work acquired abroad is free to bring that copy into the U.S. without fear of retribution from the copyright holder.

Because Quality King involved only U.S. produced works – which are unquestionably “lawfully made under” the Copyright Act – the Court had no need to consider any broader implications of Section 109(a). And so, the reach of the first sale doctrine in connection with works manufactured abroad remained in doubt after Quality King.

As a graduate student in California, Supap Kirtsaeng (“Kirtsaeng”) learned that publishers often sell their U.S. textbooks for substantially more than the identical books in Thailand. Seeing an opportunity, Kirtsaeng had friends purchase textbooks in Thailand and mail them to the U.S. where he sold them on EBay. By this simple arbitrage, Kirtsaeng generated roughly $900,000 before one the publishers, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (“Wiley”), sued.

Wiley claimed that Kirtsaeng’s unauthorized importation of the foreign-produced textbooks violated Wiley’s distribution right via the Copyright Act’s importation prohibition. Unlike in Quality King, however, Wiley argued that the first sale doctrine did not exhaust its rights because its foreign version textbooks were produced and distributed entirely outside the U.S., and thus were not “lawfully made under [the U.S. Copyright Act],” as required by Section 109(a).

Kirtsaeng countered that “lawfully made under this title” merely means “made in accordance with U.S. copyright law,” i.e., made without infringing copyright. According to Kirtsaeng, because Wiley had authorized the production and distribution of its foreign produced textbooks, they were “lawfully made under [U.S. copyright law]” and thus the first sale doctrine applied. In other words, Kirtsaeng argued, Section 109(a) works a global exhaustion of the copyright holder’s distribution right.

The Supreme Court found – after considerable discussion of statutory construction and the common law history of the “first sale” doctrine – that the phrase “lawfully made under this title” has no geographic significance. Rather, the first sale doctrine applies to copies of works that are lawfully made anywhere in the world. Thus, Section 109(a) effects a global exhaustion of the Copyright Act’s distribution right and the lawful owner of any lawfully made copy, wherever produced and wherever acquired, is free to bring that copy into the U.S. and dispose of it as she wishes.

The Court’s non-geographical interpretation of the first sale doctrine likely will have far reaching effects.

On the one hand, organizations such as libraries, used book dealers, and museums view the Kirtsaeng ruling as a victory because it clarifies that they will not have to seek permission from copyright holders to lend or sell their books or display their artwork acquired from foreign sources. Additionally, the Court’s majority believes its holding will protect the right of American consumers to resell a broad range of foreign produced products that contain copyrighted software.

On the other hand, in the Digital Age, where it is easy to shop for, purchase and ship products globally, Kirtsaeng will greatly limit a copyright holder’s ability to maintain geographic price disparities, as historically necessitated by regional economics. Consequently, one effect of Kirtsaeng may be a trend toward global price equilibration, at least for internationally interchangeable products, such as books. Some goods, however, such as technology products, may be less affected by Kirtsaeng, where various regulations outside of copyright law tend to make the products less internationally fungible.

Kirtsaeng may also foretell a rise in leases or rentals. By its terms, Section 109(a) extends first sale protection to the “owner of a particular copy.” 17 U.S.C. § 109(a) (emphasis added). Lessees are unprotected. So, a copyright holder can circumvent the effects of Section 109(a) by renting works to its customers. In the Internet age, where a myriad of products can be delivered, consumed, and deleted digitally, rental rather than sale may be an attractive way for some industries to protect current regional pricing structures.

Moreover, the Kirtsaeng decision may have implications for the exhaustion doctrine under U.S. patent law. Similar to the first sale doctrine, the exhaustion doctrine limits a patent owner’s exclusive rights in a particular item upon the first authorized sale. In 2005, the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals explained that the exhaustion doctrine only applies to the first sale in the U.S. because the U.S. patent system “does not provide for extraterritorial effect.” Fuji Photo Film Co., Ltd. V. Jazz Photo Corp., 394 F.3d 1368, 1376 (Fed. Cir. 2005). Kirtsaeng, however, casts that reasoning in doubt. While the Supreme Court recently denied certiorari in a case that would have reexamined the exhaustion doctrine, it is widely expected that the Federal Circuit will at some point revisit the issue in light of Kirtsaeng.

Finally, in the wake of Kirtsaeng, one would expect certain rights holders to pressure Congress to rewrite Section 109(a). After Quality King, copyright holders were successful in getting the House to pass a proposed amendment that would have limited Section 109(a) to copies authorized for distribution in the U.S. This proposed “domestic exhaustion” amendment, however, ultimately died in reconciliation. Only time will tell whether copyright holders could ultimately prevail to blunt the impact of Kirtsaeng.

American Invents Act (AIA) Post-Grant Practice Rapidly Integrates Federal Circuit and Board Decisions

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AIA post-grant practice has many advantages over other proceedings, but one of the great benefits of AIA post-grant practice that we have not discussed is the speed in which AIA post-grant proceedings adopt recent patent decisions from different sources.  This is really an exciting and challenging feature of AIA post-grant practice that has become even more apparent in recent filings.  One of the reasons that AIA proceedings are so quick to adopt changes in patent law is that the PTAB offers a panel of patent judges who are already versed in patent law, so the Board does not have a large learning curve to process new decisions from the Federal Circuit and laws from Congress.  Another reason is that AIA patent trials are relatively fast-paced proceedings, which by their very nature will apply legal decisions quicker than routine district court practice.  Yet another reason is that many of the changes in practical post-grant practice are being driven by the Board itself, so the Board can quickly and consistently synthesize inputs from other sources and deploy its own procedural and legal changes.  The result is a petitions practice that can adapt quickly to a rapidly changing patent legal landscape.

One example of rapid integration of recent decisions is shown by a recent CBM petition filed on behalf of LinkedIn (CBM2013- 00025) that challenges claims 1-17 of U.S. Patent No. 7,856,430 (the ’430 Patent) owned by AvMarkets, Inc.  This CBM petition is a convergence of findings from the recent Federal Circuit decision in CLS Bank lnt’l v. Alice Corp. Pty. Ltd., 2013 WL 1920941, at *9 (Fed. Cir. May 10, 2013) and the recent CBM petition and trial (SAP v. Versata, CBM2012-00001).  LinkedIn’s petition is notable for both what it includes and what it omits.  For example, the petition includes a single challenge of patent eligibility under 35 U.S.C. § 101 akin to the ultimate patentability challenge in SAP v. Versata and incorporating the recent CLS Bank decision.  For example, pages 4-5 of the LinkedIn petition borrows from the SAP v. Versata CBM:

The Board has concluded that the AlA’s definition of CBM patents should “be broadly interpreted and encompass patents claiming activities that are financial in nature, incidental to a financial activity or complementary to a financial activity.” SAP America, Inc. v. Versata Development Group, Inc., No. CBM2012- 00001, at 21-22 (P.T.A.B. January 9, 2013) (Decision regarding the Institution of Covered Business Method Review), citing 77 Fed. Reg. 157 (August 14, 2012) at 48736. In particular, the Board has held that it does “not interpret the statute as requiring the literal recitation of the terms financial products or services [and that the] term financial is an adjective that simply means relating to monetary matters.” id. at 23. “At its most basic, a financial product is an agreement between two parties stipulating movements of money or other consideration now or in the future,” and encompasses “patents [that] apply to administration of business transactions.” ld., quoting 157 Cong. Rec. S5432 (daily ed. Sept. 8 2011) (statement of Sen. Schumer).

And pages 22-23 of the LinkedIn petition also incorporates findings from CLS Bank:

Moreover, the ’430 Patent ultimately claims nothing more and nothing less than the abstract idea of generating sales leads by putting product data in a searchable index, adding only the instruction to “apply it” in the broadest field of use imaginable-the Internet. Mayo, 132 S. Ct. at 1294. That does not suffice to make these claims patentable. The idea of cataloguing customer and product data in the field of use of”the Internet” necessarily implies putting them in the formats known to be searchable on the Internet. The claims add nothing that is not already implicit in the abstract idea. Because the steps are “as a practical matter … necessary to every practical use” of the abstract idea of making commercial data searchable on the Web, they are “not truly limiting.” CLS Bank, 2013 WL 1920941 at * 11 ,citing Mayo, 132 S. Ct. at 1298 (Lourie, J. concurring); see id. at *28-*29 (Rader, J., concurring) (key inquiry is “whether the claim covers every practical application of [the] abstract idea” but even if not, ” it still will not be limited meaningfully if it . .. only … identiflies] a relevant audience, a category of use, field of use, or technological environment”). The Internet is in fact so broad an area of application, it can barely be said to limit the claim even to a field of use.  CyberSource Corp. v. Retail Decisions, Inc., 620 F. Supp. 2d 1068, 1077 (N.D. Cal. 2009) (“The internet continues to exist despite the addition or subtraction of any particular piece of hardware … [T]he internet is an abstraction …. One can touch a computer or a network cable, but one cannot touch ‘the internet.”‘), aff’d, 654 F.3d 1366.

Also notable is that LinkedIn’s filing omits several things found in other CBM petitions, like a challenge based on prior art, an expert declaration offering evidence, and use of every available page (LinkedIn’s petition is only 27 pages of a possible 80 pages afforded CBM petitions).  With this approach, LinkedIn keeps the cost of challenge to a minimum and reduces estoppel to the single ground asserted should the Board issue a final decision upholding the patent.  Of course, the petition was recently filed on May 29, 2013, so it is too early to tell if it will be successful, but the concept of challenging a patent based on a petition with relatively few pages and no initial expert testimony is the latest adaptation of post-grant practice courtesy of the America Invents Act.

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California’s Future Uncertain as U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Postpones Oil and Gas Lease Auctions

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Recently, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) announced that it would postpone all oil and gas lease auctions in California until at least October 2013.  The agency cited the toll of litigation and other costs as factors behind the decision.

Many attribute the postponement to an April 2013 federal district court ruling in Center for Biological Diversity, et al. v. Bureau of Land Management, et al., United States District Court for the Northern District of California, Case No. 11-06174 PSG, in which the court held that BLM violated the National Environmental Policy Act by failing to analyze potential environmental impacts of “fracking” on 2,700 acres of federal lands in Monterey and Fresno Counties before leasing the lands to oil companies.  Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, involves injecting high-pressure mixtures of water, sand or gravel, and chemicals into rock to extract oil.  The technique has been used for decades in California, and is also used in other states to recover natural gas.  However, fracking has recently been under increased scrutiny, amid concerns that the practice could contaminate groundwater.

The court’s decision in Center for Biological Diversity does not void the leases that were the subject of the case, but requires BLM to go back and take a closer look at the potential impacts of fracking.  The ruling is largely limited to the specific facts that were before the court, and the case is unlikely to have sweeping application as a legal precedent, but it marks a victory for environmental groups attempting to stop, or at least delay, fracking in California.

BLM’s decision to postpone oil and gas lease auctions in California coming on the heels of the Center for Biological Diversity decision suggests that policy impacts of the case may be more widely felt.  BLM announced this month that it will put off a previously scheduled late May auction for leases to drill almost 1,300 acres of public lands near the Monterey Shale.  The Monterey Shale is one of the largest deposits of shale oil in the nation, containing an estimated 15.4 billion barrels of recoverable oil.  Another auction for about 2,000 acres in Colusa County was also put on hold.

“Our priority is processing permits to drill that are already in flight rather than work on new applications,” Interior Secretary Sally Jewell told reporters in Washington.  The decision to postpone leasing doesn’t mean that drilling on existing leases will stop, but it does raise questions about what BLM will do in the fall, when the postponement expires, and how the postponement decision will impact oil and gas production more broadly.

California accounts for 6 percent of the 247 million acres under BLM control, and oil and gas drilling on BLM lands has been on the rise as advances in horizontal drilling and fracking have made hard-to-reach deposits recoverable.  The impact of litigation such as the Center for Biological Diversity matter on BLM, and on the industry as a whole, is therefore significant.

For California at least, the future is uncertain.  “We want to get the greenhouse gas emissions down, but we also want to keep our economy going,” said Governor Jerry Brown (D, California), during a March 13 press conference.  “That’s the balance that is required.”  Amid budget concerns, financially strapped government agencies may be increasingly risk-averse when it comes to potential litigation, leading to decisions like the California postponement that have industry-wide implications.

As published in Oil & Gas Monitor.

Canadians, the American Dream, and the EB-5 Investor Visa

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It’s that time of year when Canadians wintering south of the border begin to realize that fairly soon they will be packing their things and making the long trip north again. Some of them will do so willingly, eager to get back to friends and family, others will consider extending their stay by another couple of weeks or months, and still others will wonder if there is not some way to make a permanent move south.

The cliché of the Canadian “Snow Bird” exists, because it is a reality. Every winter thousands of Canadians travel south to places like Florida, Arizona, California and Hawaii. The majority retired, they may effectively spend half of their retirement Stateside.

Agreements between the US and Canada make this yearly passage possible. Under US immigration laws, Canadians are generally allowed entry as a visitor in the US for up to 6 months (180 days) at a time when they cross the US border by land, air or sea.

When it comes to taxes, the US Internal Revenue Service (“IRS”) has its own set of rules completely distinct from US immigration law. The US IRS allows Canadians to spend up to 182 days in the US under its “substantial presence” test over the course of 3 years before requiring Canadians to file a non-resident US tax return. Even then, the Canada-US tax treaty provides protections to facilitate this reporting and to keep Canadians on side with both the Canada Revenue Agency (“CRA”) and the IRS (see IRS Form 8833 Treaty Based Return Position Disclosure).

It is important for every Canadian spending time south of the border to make note of these separate, and sometimes conflicting, rules.

For those Canadians wishing to extend their stay in the US, they should look at both of these aforementioned rules to determine if this possibility exists for them. With the US and Canada announcing new initiatives to share information on the entry and exit of people across their shared border, it is possible that overstaying your 6 month entry to the US by even a few days could cause issues with US immigration next time you try to reenter the US. Additionally, for those who wish to avoid the hassle of US income tax filings, special care and attention should be given to the IRS’ “substantial presence” test.

What about those Canadians whose American Dream is not just passing October to April in the US, but rather relocating permanently?

While the US has various visa options available for those looking to work or start a business in the US, it does not have any retiree visa options, unless, perhaps, the applicant is closely related to a US citizen.

Those without a US citizen as a close relative who wish to immigrate to the US without the responsibility of working or starting a company may wish to consider the EB-5 Investor Visa.

The EB-5 Investor Visa was created by the Immigration Act of 1990, and it is a direct pathway to US permanent residency (also known as a US green card). Permanent residency allows you to live and work, or not work, in the US for as long as you would like. It also gives access to potential eligibility for programs such as US Social Security Insurance and Medicare.

To qualify for an EB-5 Investor Visa, the applicant is generally required to invest $1 Million USD in a business entity that creates or preserves at least 10 full-time jobs for US workers within 2 years. In exchange, the investor receives conditional permanent residency for the first two years, and full permanent residency at 2 years once he or she proves fulfillment of the visa requirements. It also allows the spouse and unmarried children under age 21 of the applicant to receive permanent residency.

For those who do not want or are not able to make a $1 Million USD investment, the US government will issue an EB-5 Investor Visa for investments of $500,000 USD in an approved “regional center” project, or if the passive investment is made in either a targeted low employment or rural area. Additionally, those who invest in regional centers receive the added benefit of being able to look to “indirect job creation” to fulfill the 10 full-time US jobs requirement.

Entrepreneurs starting an enterprise in the US may use the EB-5 visa, but it is equally accessible to passive investors looking for a way to make a permanent move to the US, especially when dealing with an approved regional center.

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