Insurance Archives - The National Law Forum

The Rise of Annuities – A Riddle Wrapped in a Mystery Inside an Enigma? [Podcast]

“A riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma.” That’s Winston Churchill describing Russia in 1939. The words puzzle and paradox have long been associated with annuities, marking them as one of the most difficult financial products to demystify. Recently, there has been a significant increase in annuity sales, which has added to the enigma. Why are they suddenly becoming so popular? Estate planning attorneys should know at least some basics.

The Original Annuity Riddle

The original annuity puzzle (the annuity market participation puzzle) refers to the economic paradox where retirees rarely choose to annuitize their wealth despite theoretical models suggesting this would be optimal for lifetime consumption smoothing and longevity risk protection. Classical economic theory, particularly as developed by Yaari (1965) (1), suggests that risk-averse individuals without strong bequest motives should convert a substantial portion of their wealth into lifetime annuities to hedge against outliving their assets; this optimizes their economic utility. They benefit from the insurance aspect of an annuity. Payouts are generally guaranteed for a lifetime, but the contract is priced according to average life expectancies.

However, in practice, voluntary annuity participation rates remain remarkably low across most developed countries. This discrepancy between theoretical predictions and observed behavior has sparked extensive research into potential explanations, including behavioral biases, bequest motives, concerns about healthcare costs, mistrust of insurance companies, desire for liquidity, existing annuities through Social Security and pensions, and the role of family risk-sharing.

The disinterest in annuities seems to be changing. Figure 1 shows a very recent trend of significantly increased annuity sales.

Figure 1: Growth in Annuity Sales Volume since 2004. Data from LIMRA. © wealthcarelawyer.com

The New Annuity Mystery – Why are Annuities Suddenly so Attractive?

There is no definitive answer. However, it is interesting that growth is driven almost exclusively by fixed annuities. A fixed annuity provides a guaranteed interest rate and principal protection since the insurance company bears the investment risk, but it typically offers lower potential returns with simpler features and lower fees. This maximizes the insurance aspect of an annuity.

In contrast, the returns of a variable annuity are tied to the performance of an investment portfolio chosen by the owner who bears the investment risk. These annuities offer higher potential returns and associated downside risk but with more complex features, higher management fees, and optional features like guaranteed income riders.

Figure 2: The most recent record federal deficit increase (red) seems to precede the increase in annuity sales. In contrast, good stock market performance should reduce the interest in annuities.

Annuities are priced by calculating the present value of future payment obligations, adjusted for mortality risk, expenses, and profit margins. Insurance companies start with the principal investment and determine what payment stream they can provide based on current interest rates, actuarial tables (which predict how long they will need to make payments), their operating costs, and their desired profit margin. Higher interest rates generally allow for larger payments. In contrast, longer life expectancies, additional guarantee features, and higher expenses reduce the payment amounts the insurer can offer for a given principal investment.

In the first quarter of 2024, annuity sales reached a record $113.5 billion, marking the highest first-quarter sales figure in the 40-year history of Limra’s data tracking. While it is unclear what caused the sudden increase in the popularity of annuities, we believe that concern for the viability of Social Security because of the ballooning deficit may have contributed to it. LIMRA offers an alternative evaluation:

“Favorable economic conditions and demographic shifts have driven demand for investment protection and guaranteed lifetime income solutions that are unique to annuity products. During their discussion, Hodgens focused on the economic factors, such as higher interest rates and prolonged market volatility, which have enhanced the value and appeal of fixed annuity products, particularly fixed-rate deferred (FRD) and fixed indexed annuities (FIA).” (2).

It is also possible that current affluent baby boomers, as the sandwich generation, see value in diversifying with annuities: The annuity is considered spending money to help assure a certain standard of living, while investments are invaded only sparingly to allow for a growing legacy for the next generation. A guaranteed income stream from an annuity can provide psychological permission for retirees to spend more freely on themselves. Without an annuity, many retirees tend to be overly conservative with spending, worried about depleting their savings too quickly or not having enough for longevity and emergencies.

The Annuity Product Enigma

In an effort to make annuities more attractive, the industry has developed numerous products that address various concerns and preferences clients may have. As a general rule, many of the special flavors partially defeat the economic purpose of an annuity, which is utility maximization for persons without a strong bequest motive.

Figure 3: Some of the major annuity families and species. © wealthcarelawyer.com

Annuity contracts have evolved from basic guaranteed income instruments into complex financial products, each structured to address specific risk-transfer and income objectives. This evolution has produced three distinct primary classifications: Fixed, Variable, and Indexed annuities.

Fixed Annuities represent the foundational form. The Single Premium Immediate Annuity (SPIA) facilitates direct risk transfer through immediate income guarantees, leveraging mortality credits to enhance returns. Deferred Income Annuities (DIAs) modify this framework by introducing a time delay element, optimizing for future income maximization. Qualified Longevity Annuity Contracts (QLACs) emerged as a specialized adaptation to retirement account regulations, permitting Required Minimum Distribution deferral to age 85, subject to statutory limitations ($200,000). Multi-Year Guaranteed Annuities (MYGAs) provide fixed-rate guarantees over specified periods, offering liquidity features absent in traditional fixed annuities.

Variable Annuities evolved to incorporate market exposure through separate account structures. The basic Investment-Only variant provides tax-deferred market participation, while Living Benefit riders introduced protective features:

Guaranteed Lifetime Withdrawal Benefits (GLWB) ensure sustained withdrawal rates
Guaranteed Minimum Income Benefits (GMIB) protect future income bases
Guaranteed Minimum Accumulation Benefits (GMAB) provide principal protection parameters

Indexed Annuities represent a hybrid development, linking returns to market indices while maintaining principal protection. Structured/Buffered variants modify this framework by accepting defined downside exposure in exchange for enhanced participation rates.

Tax treatment bifurcates between:

Qualified: Pre-tax funding, full distribution taxation
Non-Qualified: After-tax funding, exclusion ratio calculations

Contract modifications across all variants may include:

Mortality benefit enhancements
Inflation adjustment mechanisms
Long-term care provisions
Premium return options
Distribution structure alternatives

This taxonomic framework provides the foundation for analyzing suitability, tax implications, and regulatory considerations across various client objectives and constraints.

Client Self Help

More information about annuities is not necessarily more helpful to consumers: “More complete, and therefore more complex information about annuity products leads to reduced attention and produces worse consumer choices. In an eye-tracking experiment comparing consumer response to a real, relatively brief annuity brochure and an edited and shortened version of the same brochure, we find that the more complex the materials, the faster attention declines.” (3).

This underscores the need for a learned intermediary to digest the information and to tailor it to the individual’s needs, preferences, and financial situation, who can ask clarifying questions to ascertain understanding.

Given a certain contract amount and their ages, many clients want to know what monthly or annual income they can expect given the current rate structures. The Annuity Calculator by annuity.org promises to do that. Others, such as Schwab, have similar annuity calculators, and results may differ.

How to Help Your Estate Planning Clients

The increasing complexity and popularity of annuity products present both opportunities and challenges for estate planning attorneys. Given the recent surge in annuity sales and evolving product complexity, attorneys must establish clear parameters for client discussions regarding these financial instruments.

Estate planning attorneys can appropriately address annuities by maintaining strict professional boundaries while providing valuable guidance. The fundamental framework involves three key components: permissible discussion parameters, professional referral protocols, and risk management considerations.

Permissible Discussion Parameters: Estate planning attorneys may appropriately discuss the theoretical foundations of annuities, including their role in consumption smoothing and longevity risk protection as established in classical economic theory. Discussions may encompass general tax implications, basic product classifications (fixed, variable, and indexed), and integration with estate planning objectives.

Professional Referral Protocols: Given the product complexity illustrated in the annuity taxonomy, specific product recommendations should be deferred to qualified specialists. Appropriate referral channels include:

Independent Annuity Brokers
Independent Insurance Advisors
Certified Financial Planners (CFPs)
Chartered Life Underwriters (CLUs)

Risk Management Considerations Documentation protocols should include:

Contemporaneous recording of annuity-related discussions
Specific referral documentation
Clear delineation of scope limitations regarding product recommendations

The attorney’s role should focus on identifying how annuity contracts may integrate with broader estate planning objectives while ensuring clients receive specialized guidance for product selection. This approach aligns with the current market dynamics where product complexity demands specialized expertise beyond the scope of general estate planning practice.

Professional network development should emphasize relationships with independent advisors who maintain appropriate licensing and demonstrate expertise in the evolving annuity marketplace. This network enables appropriate delegation of product-specific guidance while maintaining the attorney’s role in the overall estate planning strategy.

This framework enables estate planning attorneys to address the increasing relevance of annuity products while maintaining appropriate professional boundaries and ensuring clients receive comprehensive guidance from qualified specialists regarding specific product selection and implementation.

Podcast

References

Yaari, M.E., 1965. Uncertain lifetime, life insurance, and the theory of the consumer. The Review of Economic Studies, 32(2), pp.137-150.
LIMRA, Building on the Record Annuity Sales Momentum, LIMRA (May 22, 2024), https://www.limra.com/en/newsroom/industry-trends/2024/building-on-the-record-annuity-sales-momentum/.
Harvey, Joseph, John G. Lynch, Philip Fernbach, and Ji Hoon Jhang. “Information Overload in Consumer Response to Annuities: Eye-Tracking and Behavioral Evidence.” Consumer Financial Protection Bureau Office of Research Working Paper 23-01 (2023).

https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm?abstractid=4394792

Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act Final Rules (“Final Rules”) Are Released: Plans and Issuers Must Prepare for January 1, 2025 Effective Date (US)

The long-awaited Final Rules amending the Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act (“MHPAEA”) were released on September 9, 2024, with the bulk of the requirements going into effect on January 1, 2025. As we previously reported here, in August 2023, the Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services (“HHS”) and Treasury (together, the “Departments”) published proposed rules further regulating insurance coverage for treatment for mental health and substance use disorders. Although the Final Rules appear less burdensome than the proposed rules, they do impose significant changes to the obligations of group health plans and health insurance issuers with a short time to achieve compliance. The key provisions are summarized below.

Key Changes in the Final Rules

The Final Rules’ stated intent is to “strengthen consumer protections consistent with MHPAEA’s fundamental purpose,” which includes reducing burdens on access to benefits for individuals in group health plans or with group or individual health insurance coverage seeking treatment for mental health and substance use disorders (“MH/SUD”) as compared to accessing benefits for the treatment of medical/surgical (“M/S”) conditions.

The Final Rules purport to achieve that goal through four key changes to the MHPAEA:

Mandating content requirements for performing a comparative analysis of the design and application of each non-quantitative treatment limitation (“NQTL”) applicable to MH/SUD benefits.
Setting forth design and application requirements and relevant data evaluation requirements to ensure compliance with NQTL rules.
Increasing scrutiny of network adequacy for MH/SUD benefits.
Introducing core treatment coverage requirements to the meaningful benefit standard.

Comparative Analysis Content Requirements

Since 2021, insurance plans and issuers offering plans that cover both M/S and MH/SUD benefits and impose NQTLs on MH/SUD benefits must have a written comparative analysis demonstrating that the factors used to apply an NQTL to MH/SUD benefits are comparable to and applied no more stringently than those used to apply that same NQTL to M/S benefits, as set forth in the 2021 Consolidated Appropriations Act (“CAA”). The Final Rules expand upon the NQTL analysis required by the CAA and include six specific content elements:

a description of the NQTL;
identification and definition of the factors and evidentiary standards used to design or apply the NQTL;
a description of how factors are used in the design or application of the NQTL;
a demonstration of comparability and stringency, as written;
a demonstration of comparability and stringency, in operation, including the required data, evaluation of that data, explanation of any material differences in access, and description of reasonable actions taken to address such differences; and
findings and conclusions.

Upon request, plans and issuers must provide written comparative analyses to U.S. regulators, plan beneficiaries, participants, or enrollees who have received an adverse benefit determination related to MH/SUD benefits, and participants and beneficiaries in plans governed by ERISA at any time. Plans and issuers only have 10 business days to respond to a request from the relevant Secretary to review its comparative analyses and, if an initial determination of noncompliance is made, the plan or issuer only has 45 calendar days to respond with specific actions it will take to bring the plan into compliance and provide additional comparative analyses that demonstrate compliance. Upon a final determination of noncompliance, notice must be given to all participants, beneficiaries, and enrollees within seven business days after the relevant Secretary’s determination.

Demonstrating Compliance with NQTL Rules

The Final Rules also require that a NQTL applicable to MH/SUD benefits in a classification is no more restrictive than the predominant NQTL applied to M/S benefits in the same classification. In order to ensure compliance with NQTL rules, plans and issuers must satisfy two sets of requirements: (1) the design and application requirements, and (2) the relevant data evaluation requirements. For example, under the design and application requirements, a plan cannot reimburse non-physician providers of MH/SUD services by reducing the rates for physician providers of MH/SUD services unless it applies the same reduction to non-physician providers of M/S services from the rate for physician providers of such services. Under the relevant data evaluation requirements, to compare the impact of NQTLs related to network composition on access to MH/SUD versus M/S benefits, a plan should evaluate metrics relating to the time and distance from plan participants and beneficiaries to network providers, the number of network providers accepting new patients, provider reimbursement rates, and in-network and out-of-network utilization rates.

Design and Application

Plans and issuers must examine the factors used to design and apply an NQTL to MH/SUD benefits to ensure such factors are comparable to those used with respect to M/S benefits in the same classification. The Final Rules also prohibit using information that discriminates against MH/SUD benefits as compared to M/S benefits, meaning information that systematically disfavors or was specifically designed to disfavor access to MH/SUD benefits. Appropriate information and other factors to use in designing and applying an NQTL to MH/SUD benefits include generally recognized independent professional medical or clinical standards.

Relevant Data Evaluation

The relevant data evaluation requirement means plans and issuers must collect and evaluate data to ensure, in operation, that an NQTL applicable to MH/SUD benefits is not more restrictive than the NQTL applied to M/S benefits in the same classification. The Final Rules anticipate that the relevant data for any given NQTL will depend on the facts and circumstances and provide flexibility for plans to determine what should be collected and evaluated. Examples of relevant data provided in the Final Rules include the number and percentage of claim denials, utilization rates, and network adequacy rates.

Network Adequacy

The Final Rules demonstrate the Departments’ increased scrutiny of network adequacy issues for MH/SUD benefits. For NQTLs related to network composition standards, a plan or issuer must collect data to assess the NQTLs’ aggregate impact on access to MH/SUD benefits and M/S benefits. By way of example, suppose the evaluated data suggests that an NQTL contributes to a material difference in access to MH/SUD benefits compared to M/S benefits. In that case, plans and issuers must act to address any material differences in access. The Final Rules provide examples of reasonable compliance actions, including increased recruiting efforts for MH/SUD providers, expanding telehealth options under the plan, and ensuring that provider directories are accurate and reliable. A plan must document the actions that it takes to address differences in access to in-network MH/SUD providers as compared to in-network M/S providers.

Meaningful Benefit Standard

The Final Rules require plans to provide “meaningful” benefits for MH/SUD disorders in every classification in which the plan provides M/S benefits. Benefits are “meaningful,” for MHPAEA purposes, when they cover core treatments for that condition, meaning a standard treatment or course of treatment, therapy, service, or intervention indicated by generally recognized independent standards of current medical practice.

The Final Rules provide examples to demonstrate the application of the meaningful benefits standard. In one example, a plan covers the full range of outpatient treatments (including core treatments) and treatment settings for M/S benefits when provided on an out-of-network basis. The same plan covers outpatient, out-of-network developmental screenings for a mental health condition but excludes all other benefits, such as therapeutic intervention, for outpatient treatment when provided on an out-of-network basis. The Departments view therapeutic intervention, however, as a core treatment for the mental health condition under generally recognized independent standards of current medical practice. Per the Final Rules, the Departments interpret such exclusion as a violation because the plan does not cover a core treatment for the mental health disorder in the outpatient, out-of-network classification. Since the plan’s coverage for M/S benefits includes a core treatment in the classification, the Final Rules opine that the plan fails to provide meaningful benefits for treatment of the mental health disorder.

Effective Dates

The new requirements of the Final Rules will go into effect on different dates. Plans and issuers have until January 1, 2026, to comply with the meaningful benefits standard, the prohibition on discriminatory factors and evidentiary standards, the relevant data evaluation requirements, and the related requirements in the provisions for comparative analyses. During this time, plans and issuers should assess whether their mental health provider networks are adequate, and also consider expanding the scope of MH/SUD benefits across classifications to meet new parity requirements.

The other requirements, including most of the new requirements affecting comparative analyses, go into effect on January 1, 2025. Accordingly, plans and issuers should the time remaining this year to develop a plan to prepare NQTL comparative analyses within the three-month compliance period, and have processes in place to quickly address any material changes to benefit design in the future.

Preparing For the Return of Dealer Distress

Over the last five years, auto and equipment dealers experienced a period of low inventory levels with high margins on the limited inventory they had for sale and lease. Used automotive and equipment wholesale and retail prices surged. At the same time, merger and acquisition activity drove dealer valuations to record highs especially in the automotive segment.

Dealer merger and acquisition activity has started to cool even though valuations and activity remain elevated above pre-pandemic levels¹. New automotive inventory levels have risen during 2024 to the point that Ford’s CFO, John Lawler, expressed worry regarding rising new car inventory levels in June². Used automotive and equipment wholesale prices have declined from their pandemic era highs as well.

Record profits, low inventory levels, and strong merger and acquisition activity led to low delinquency and default levels in the dealer lending space, but current trends indicate those days may be coming to an end. For floor plan lenders, they should be thinking about dealer distress happening again. While times are still good, there are some steps lenders can take to prepare for distress down the road.

Review Your Documents and Security Interests

It is always easier to fix documentation and security interest deficiencies when times are good. Lenders should be checking to make sure their loan documents are correct and most importantly, their security interest position reflects their expectations. One area of particular concern is making sure no other parties have filed security interests against the dealer including merchant cash advance, factoring and other “short term” funding sources that might not show up as debt on financial statements. Even other lenders providing longer term debt financing secured by other assets like real estate may be taking a security interest in your inventory as well.

Insurance

As part of your documentation review, you should verify the dealer’s insurance meets the requirements of your loan documents, lists your interest properly, and is adequate for the dealer’s exposure. Insurance coverage tied to inventory levels can become insufficient if inventory levels rise faster than the coverage limits increase. Also ensuring the insurance covers all collateral locations is a requirement that might slip through the cracks especially if collateral locations change frequently.

Where is Your Collateral?

One benefit of low inventory levels was that dealers stopped storing inventory at satellite lots. The practice of old is starting to return as inventory levels build. Lenders want to make sure they know of these locations (they should if they are on top of the audits) and obtain landlord waivers if necessary to access the inventory upon a default.

Keeping Up on Audits

Anyone who knows the floor plan business knows the importance of audits. Low inventory levels and well performing dealers made audits easy. With increasing inventory levels, audit complexity is returning to pre-pandemic norms. Audit issues are often one of the first signs of dealer distress. A prominent example of a dealer issue recently being unearthed through audits involves a boat dealer who allegedly sold boats, but stored them for the customers and alleged the boats were still for sale³.

Financial Reporting and Covenants

Financial reporting deficiencies and financial covenant violations are also warning signs of potential distress on the horizon. Dealers rarely go bad overnight. Financial reporting and covenants going downhill are an obvious warning sign.

Taxes

Not just limited to dealers, but tax delinquencies are always a big red flag. Confirming the payment of taxes and the existence of no tax liens should be part of reviewing any dealer relationship especially one showing other signs of distress.

Used Inventory Levels and Advance Rates

During the pandemic when used vehicle and equipment prices shot through the roof, lenders became permissive of advancing beyond their standard advance rates. As used inventory values decline for vehicles⁴ and agricultural equipment⁵, dealers can be underwater on used inventory.

Manufacturer Specific Issues

Not all dealers are equal and the same is true for manufacturers. Monthly inventory level data from Cox Automotive⁶ shows inventory levels being substantially higher among some vehicle brands compared to others. Keeping an eye on your dealer and the average inventory levels of the brands they carry should be on your radar.

Explaining What You Do

As someone who spent a decade as lead counsel at two different financial institutions being lead counsel for floor plan businesses, I spent a lot of time explaining to others outside the floor plan businesses the nuances of floor plan lending. If things start going downhill with a dealer, be prepared for the inevitable basic questions from those not used to the dealer business.

Conclusion – Hope for the Best, Prepare For The Worst

One of the best credit people I ever worked with described a dealer failure as like a war. When a dealer failure occurs, most likely through a selling inventory out of trust, you don’t have time to learn what to do. You got to know what to do. You must have someone ready to take command and quarterback the response. You got to know who will help you accomplish your ends. If you don’t act quickly, your inventory will be gone and your losses can be in the millions within days.

¹ “Dealership Buy-Sell Activity and Blue Sky Values are declining, but are elevated well above pre-pandemic levels”, The Haig Report, August 29, 2024 (2024-Q2-Haig-Report-Press-Release-FINAL.pdf (haigpartners.com))
² “Ford CFO says growing dealer inventory ‘worries me’”, Breana Noble, The Detroit News, June 11, 2024 (Ford CFO John Lawler says growing dealer inventory ‘worries me’ (detroitnews.com))
³ “Lender Alleges Dealer Diverted Millions in Sales Proceeds”, Kim Kavin, Soundings Trade Only, April 16, 2024 (https://www.tradeonlytoday.com/manufacturers/lender-alleges-dealer-diverted-millions-in-sales-proceeds)
⁴ “Wholesale Used-Vehicle Prices Decrease in First Half of September”, Cox Automotive, September 17, 2024 (Wholesale Used-Vehicle Prices Decrease in First Half of September – Cox Automotive Inc. (coxautoinc.com))
⁵ “Lower Used Equipment Prices Are Another Sign of the Challenges in the Ag Sector”, Jim Wiesenmeyer, Farm Journal, August 14, 2024 (Lower Used Equipment Prices Are Another Sign of the Challenges in the Ag Sector | AgWeb).
⁶ “New-Vehicle Inventory Stabilizes as Sales Incentives Increase and Model Year 2025 Vehicles Arrive”, Cox Automotive, September 19, 2024 (New-Vehicle Inventory Stabilizes as Sales Incentives Increase and Model Year 2025 Vehicles Arrive – Cox Automotive Inc. (coxautoinc.com))

Application of New Mental Health Parity Rules to Provider Network Composition and Reimbursement: Perspective and Analysis

On September 23, 2024, the U.S. Departments of Labor, the Treasury, and Health and Human Services (collectively, the “Departments”) released final rules (the “Final Rules”) that implement requirements under the Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act (MHPAEA).

The primary focus of the Final Rules is to implement new statutory requirements under the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021, which amended MHPAEA to require health plans and issuers to develop comparative analyses to determine whether nonquantitative treatment limitations (NQTLs)—which are non-financial restrictions on health care benefits that can limit the length or scope of treatment—for mental health and substance use disorder (MH/SUD) benefits are comparable to and applied no more stringently than NQTLs for medical/surgical (M/S) benefits.

Last month, Epstein Becker Green published an Insight entitled “Mental Health Parity: Federal Departments of Labor, Treasury, and Health Release Landmark Regulations,” which provides an overview of the Final Rules. This Insight takes a closer look at the application of the Final Rules to NQTLs related to provider network composition and reimbursement rates.

Provider Network Composition and Reimbursement NQTL Types

A key focus of the Final Rules is to ensure that NQTLs related to provider network composition and reimbursement rates do not impose greater restrictions on access to MH/SUD benefits than they do for M/S benefits.

In the Final Rules, the Departments decline to specify which strategies and functions they expect to be analyzed as separate NQTL types, instead requiring health plans and issuers to identify, define, and analyze the NQTL types that they apply to MH/SUD benefits. However, the Final Rules set out that the general category of “provider network composition” NQTL types includes, but is not limited to, “standards for provider and facility admission to participate in a network or for continued network participation, including methods for determining reimbursement rates, credentialing standards, and procedures for ensuring the network includes an adequate number of each category of provider and facility to provide services under the plan or coverage.”[1]

For NQTLs related to out-of-network rates, the Departments note that NQTLs would include “[p]lan or issuer methods for determining out-of-network rates, such as allowed amounts; usual, customary, and reasonable charges; or application of other external benchmarks for out-of-network rates.”[2]

Requirements for Comparative Analyses and Outcomes Data Evaluation

For each NQTL type, plans must perform and document a six-step comparative analysis that must be provided to federal and state regulators, members, and authorized representatives upon request. The Final Rules divide the NQTL test into two parts: (1) the “design and application” requirement and (2) the “relevant data evaluation” requirement.

The “design and application” requirement, which builds directly on existing guidance, requires the “processes, strategies, evidentiary standards, or other factors” used in designing and applying an NQTL to MH/SUD benefits to be comparable to, and applied no more stringently than, those used for M/S benefits. Although these aspects of the comparative analysis should be generally familiar, the Final Rules and accompanying preamble provide extensive new guidance about how to interpret and implement these requirements.

The Final Rules also set out a second prong to the analysis: the requirement to collect and evaluate “relevant data” for each NQTL. If such analysis shows a “material difference” in access, then the Final Rules also require the plan to take “reasonable” action to remedy the disparity.

The Final Rules provide that relevant data measures for network composition NQTLs may include, but are not limited to:

in-network and out-of-network utilization rates, including data related to provider claim submissions;
network adequacy metrics, including time and distance data, data on providers accepting new patients, and the proportions of available MH/SUD and M/S providers that participate in the plan’s network; and
provider reimbursement rates for comparable services and as benchmarked to a reference standard, such as Medicare fee schedules.

Although the Final Rules do not describe relevant data for out-of-network rates, these data measures may parallel measures to evaluate in-network rates, including measures that benchmark MH/SUD and M/S rates against a common standard, such as Medicare fee schedule rates.

Under the current guidance, plans have broad flexibility to determine what measures must be used, though the plan must ensure that the metrics that are selected reasonably measure the actual stringency of design and application of the NQTL with regard to the impact on member access to MH/SUD and M/S benefits. However, additional guidance is expected to further clarify the data evaluation requirements that may require the use of specific measures, likely in the form of additional frequently asked questions as well as updates to the Self-Compliance Tool published by the Departments to help plans and issuers assess whether their NQTLs satisfy parity requirements.

The Final Rules require plans to look at relevant data for network composition NQTLs in the aggregate—meaning that the same relevant data must be used for all NQTL types (however defined). As such, the in-operation data component of the comparative analysis for network composition NQTLs will be aggregated.

If the relevant data indicates a “material difference,” the threshold for which the plan must establish and define reasonably, the plan must take “reasonable actions” to address the difference in access and document those actions.

Examples of a “reasonable action” that plans can take to comply with network composition requirements “include, but are not limited to:

Strengthening efforts to recruit and encourage a broad range of available mental health and substance use disorder providers and facilities to join the plan’s or issuer’s network of providers, including taking actions to increase compensation or other inducements, streamline credentialing processes, or contact providers reimbursed for items and services provided on an out-of-network basis to offer participation in the network;
Expanding the availability of telehealth arrangements to mitigate any overall mental health and substance use disorder provider shortages in a geographic area;
Providing additional outreach and assistance to participants and beneficiaries enrolled in the plan or coverage to assist them in finding available in-network mental health and substance use disorder providers and facilities; and
Ensuring that provider directories are accurate and reliable.”

These examples of potential corrective actions and related discussion in the Final Rules provide an ambitious vision for a robust suite of strategies that the Departments believe that plans should undertake to address material disparities in access as defined in the relevant data. However, the Final Rules put the onus on the plan to design the strategy that it will use to define “material differences” and remedy any identified disparity in access. Future guidance and enforcement may provide examples of how this qualitative assessment will play out in practice and establish both what the Departments will expect with regard to the definition of “material differences” and what remedial actions they consider to be sufficient. In the interim, it is highly uncertain what the practical impact of these new requirements will be.

Examples of Network Analyses Included in the Final Rules

The Final Rules include several examples to clarify the application of the new requirements to provider network composition NQTLs. Unfortunately, the value of these examples for understanding how the Final Rules will impact MH/SUD provider networks in practice may be limited. As a result, given the lack of detail regarding the complexity of analyzing these requirements for actual provider networks, as well as the fact that the examples fail to engage in any meaningful discussion of where to identify the threshold for compliance with these requirements, it remains to be seen how regulators will interpret and enforce these requirements in practice.

Example 1 demonstrates that it would violate the NQTL requirements to apply a percentage discount to physician fee schedule rates for non-physician MH/SUD providers if the same reduction is not applied for non-physician M/S providers. Our takeaways from this example include the following:
- This example is comparable to the facts that were alleged by the U.S. Department of Labor in Walsh v. United Behavioral Health, E.D.N.Y., No. 1:21-cv-04519 (8/11/21).
- Example 1 is useful to the extent that it clarifies that a reimbursement strategy that specifically reduces MH/SUD provider rates in ways that do not apply to M/S provider rates would violate MHPAEA. However, such cut-and-dried examples may be rare in practice, and a full review of the strategies for developing provider reimbursement rates is necessary.
Example 4 demonstrates that plans may not simply rely on periodic historic fee schedules as the sole basis for their current fee schedules. Here are some key takeaways from this example:
- Even though this methodology may be neutral and non-discriminatory on its face, given that the historic fee schedules are not themselves a non-biased source of evidence, to meet the new requirements for evidentiary standards and sources, the plan would have to demonstrate that these historic fee schedules were based on sources that were objective and not biased against MH/SUD providers.
- If the plan cannot demonstrate that the evidentiary standard used to develop its fee schedule does not systematically disfavor access to MH/SUD benefits, it can still pass the NQTL test if it takes steps to cure the discriminatory factor.
- Example 4 loosely describes a scenario where a plan supplements a historic fee schedule that is found to discriminate against MH/SUD access by accounting for the current demand for MH/SUD services and attracting “sufficient” MH/SUD providers to the network. Unfortunately, however, the facts provided do not clarify what steps were taken to achieve this enhanced access or how the plan or regulator determined that access had become “sufficient” following the implementation of the corrective actions.
Example 10 provides that if a plan’s data measures indicate a “material difference” in access to MH/SUD benefits relative to M/S benefits that are attributable to these NQTLs, the plan can still achieve compliance by taking corrective actions. Our takeaways from this example include the following:
- The facts in this example stipulate that the plan evaluates all of the measure types that are identified above as examples. Example 10 also states that a “material difference” exists but does not identify the measure or measures for which a difference exists or what facts lead to the conclusion that the difference was “material.” To remedy the material difference, this example states that the plan undertakes all of the corrective actions to strengthen its MH/SUD provider network that are identified above as examples and, therefore, achieves compliance. However, this example fails to clarify how potentially inconsistent outcomes across the robust suite of identified measures were balanced to determine that the “material difference” standard was ultimately met. Example 10 also does not provide any details about what specific corrective actions the plan takes or what changes result from these actions.

Epstein Becker Green’s Perspective

The new requirements of the Final Rules will significantly increase the focus of the comparative analyses on the outcomes of the provider network NQTLs. For many years, the focus of the comparative analyses was primarily on determining whether any definable aspect of the plan’s provider contracting and reimbursement rate-setting strategies could be demonstrated to discriminate against MH/SUD providers. The Final Rules retain those requirements but now put greater emphasis on the results of network composition activities with regard to member access and require plans to pursue corrective actions to remediate any material disparities in that data. This focus on a robust “disparate impact” form of anti-discrimination analysis may lead to a meaningful increase in reimbursement for MH/SUD providers or other actions to more aggressively recruit them to participate in commercial health plan networks.

However, at present, it remains unclear which measures the Departments will ultimately require for reporting. Concurrent with the release of their Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on July 23, 2023, the Departments published Technical Release 2023-01P to solicit comments on key approaches to evaluating comparability and stringency for provider network access and reimbursement rates (including some that are referenced as examples in the Final Rules). Comments to the Technical Release highlighted significant concerns with nearly all of the proposed measures. For example, proposals to require analysis of MH/SUD and M/S provider reimbursement rates for commercial markets that are benchmarked to Medicare fee schedules in a simplistic way may fail to account for differences in population health and utilization, value-based reimbursement strategies, and a range of other factors with significant implications for financial and clinical models for both M/S and MH/SUD providers. Requirements to analyze the numbers or proportions of MH/SUD and M/S providers that are accepting new patients may be onerous for providers to report on and for plans to collect and may obscure significant nuances with regard to wait times, the urgency of the service, and the match between the provider’s training and service offerings to the patient’s need. Time and mileage standards highlighted by the Departments not only often fail to capture important access challenges experienced by patients who need MH/SUD care from sub-specialty providers or facilities but also fail to account for evolving service delivery models that may include options such as mobile units, school-based services, home visits, and telehealth. Among the measures identified in the Technical Release, minor differences in measure definitions and specifications can have significant impacts on the data outcomes, and few (if any) of the proposed measures have undergone any form of testing for reliability and validity.

Also, it is still not clear where the Departments will draw the lines for making final determinations of noncompliance with the Final Rules. For example, where a range of different data measures is evaluated, how will the Departments resolve data outcomes that are noisy, conflicting, or inconclusive? Similarly, where regulators do conclude that the data that are provided suggest a disparity in access, the Final Rules identify a highly robust set of potential corrective actions. However, it remains to be seen what scope of actions the Departments will determine to be “good enough” in practice.

Finally, we are interested in seeing what role private litigation will play in driving health plan compliance efforts and practical impacts for providers. To date, plaintiffs have found it challenging to pursue litigation on the basis of claims under MHPAEA, due in part to the highly complex arguments that must be made to evaluate MHPAEA compliance and in part to the challenge for plaintiffs to have adequate insight into plan policies, operations, and data across MH/SUD and M/S benefits to adequately assert a complaint under MHPAEA. Very few class action lawsuits or large settlements have occurred to date. These challenges for potential litigants may continue to limit the volume of litigation. However, to the extent that the additional guidance in the Final Rules does give rise to an uptick in successful litigation, it is possible that the courts may end up having a greater impact on health plan compliance strategies than regulators.

ENDNOTES

[1] 26 CFR 54.9812- 1(c)(4)(ii)(D), 29 CFR 2590.712(c)(4)(ii)(D), and 45 CFR 146.136(c)(4)(ii)(D).

[2] 26 CFR 54.9812- 1(c)(4)(ii)(E), 29 CFR 2590.712(c)(4)(ii)(E), and 45 CFR 146.136(c)(4)(ii)(E).

Massachusetts SJC Rules in Favor of Insureds for Ambiguous Insurance Policy Term

In Zurich American Insurance Company v. Medical Properties Trust, Inc. (and a consolidated case[1]) (Docket No. SJC-13535), the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts ruled in favor of insureds in a dispute over an ambiguous term in two policies insuring Norwood Hospital in Norwood, Massachusetts. A severe storm with heavy rain caused damage to the hospital basement and to the hospital’s main buildings caused by seepage through the courtyard roof and parapet roof. The owner of the Hospital, Medical Properties Trust, Inc. (“MPT”) and the tenant, Steward Health Care System LLC[2] (“Steward”), both had insurance policies for the Hospital, MPT’s coverage being through Zurich American Insurance Company (“Zurich”), and Steward’s through American Guarantee and Liability Insurance Company & another (“AGLIC”). Both policies had coverage of up to $750 and $850 million but lower coverage limits for damage to the Hospital for “Flood” at $100 and $150 million (“Flood Sublimits”). Both Steward and MPT submitted proof of loss claims to their respective insurers that exceeded $200 million; the insurers responded that damage to the hospital was caused by “Flood”, which limits both MPT and Steward to their respective Flood Sublimits. The policy provision “Flood” is defined as “a general and temporary condition of partial or complete inundation of normally dry land areas or structures caused by…the unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters, waves, tides, tidal waves, tsunami, the release of water, the rising, overflowing or breaking of boundaries of nature or man-made bodies of water.”

The insurers, and MPT and Steward had differing opinions on the definition of “surface waters.” Litigation commenced to determine the extent of coverage available to MPT and Steward for damage to the hospital. The parties agreed that the damage to the basement was caused by Flood, and therefore subject to the Flood Sublimits. However, the parties disagreed as to whether the damage caused by rain seeping in through the courtyard roof and parapet roof was caused by “Flood” because of ambiguity in the definition of Flood. The United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts held that the term “surface waters” in both policies’ definition of “Flood” included rainwater accumulating on the rooftop. The judge allowed an interlocutory appeal due to the substantial difference in opinion of the term “surface water” under the definition of “Flood.” The Court noted that case law across the country is divided on this issue. MPT and Steward appealed, and the First Circuit certified a question to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court (SJC), “Whether rainwater that lands and accumulates on either (i) a building’s second-floor outdoor rooftop courtyard or (ii) a building’s parapet roof and that subsequently inundates the interior of the building unambiguously constitutes ‘surface waters’ under Massachusetts law for the purposed of the insurance policies at issue?”

The SJC concluded that the meaning of “surface waters” and the definition of “Flood” under the policies are ambiguous in regard to the accumulation of rainwaters on roofs, finding that ambiguity is not the party’s disagreement of a term’s meaning but rather where it is susceptible of more than one meaning and reasonably intelligent persons would differ as to which meaning is the proper one. The SJC noted there is no consistent interpretation in case law for “surface waters” to include rainwater accumulating on a roof. Reasoning that if the policy language is ambiguous as to its intended meaning, then the meaning must be resolved against the insurers that drafted the terms, as they had the opportunity to add more precise terms to the policy and did not do so.

This case is an example of the importance for all parties to closely review the language of their insurance coverage to ensure that coverage is consistent with their lease obligations. Additionally, this dispute also draws attention to the importance of casualty provisions in leases. It is important to negotiate the burden of costs in the event of caps or insufficient insurance, along with termination rights for each party.

[1] Steward Health Care System LLC vs. American Guarantee and Liability Insurance Company & another.

[2] Apart from this litigation, the future of Norwood Hospital as a hospital is uncertain as it has not been open for four years and Steward Health Care System LLC has filed for bankruptcy protection.

Struck by CrowdStrike Outage? Your Business Loss Could Be Covered

Over the last week, organizations around the globe have struggled to bring operations back online following a botched software update from cybersecurity company CrowdStrike. As the dust settles, affected organizations should consider whether they are insured against losses or claims arising from the outage. The Wall Street Journal has already reported that insurers are bracing for claims arising from the outage and that according to one cyber insurance broker “[t]he insurance world was expecting to cover situations like this.” A cyber analytics firm has estimated that insured losses following the outage could reach $1.5 billion.

Your cyber insurance policy may cover losses resulting from the CrowdStrike outage. These policies often include “business interruption” or “contingent business interruption” insurance that protects against disruptions from a covered loss. Business interruption insurance covers losses from disruptions to your own operations. This insurance may cover losses if the outage affected your own computer systems. Contingent business interruption insurance, on the other hand, covers your losses when another entity’s operations are disrupted. This coverage could apply if the outage affected a supplier or cloud service provider that your organization relies on.

Cyber policies often vary in the precise risks they cover. Evaluating potential coverage requires comparing your losses to the policy’s coverage. Cyber policies also include limitations and exclusions on coverage. For example, many cyber policies contain a “waiting period” that requires affected systems to be disrupted for a certain period before the policy provides coverage. These waiting periods can be as short as one hour or as long as several days.

Other commercial insurance policies could also provide coverage depending on the loss or claim and the policy endorsements and exclusions. For example, your organization may have procured liability insurance that protects against third-party claims or litigation. This insurance could protect you from claims made by customers or other businesses related to the outage.

If your operations have been impacted by the CrowdStrike outage, there are a few steps you can take now to maximize your potential insurance recovery.

First, read your policies to determine the available coverage. As you review your policies, pay careful attention to policy limits, endorsements, and exclusions. A policy endorsement may significantly expand policy coverage, even though it is located long after the relevant policy section. Keep in mind that courts generally interpret coverage provisions in a policy generously in favor of an insured and interpret exclusions or limitations narrowly against an insurance company.

Second, track your losses. The outage likely cost your organization lost profits or extra expenses. Common business interruption losses may also include overtime expenses to remedy the outage, expenses to hire third-party consultants or technicians, and penalties arising from the outage’s disruption to your operations. Whatever the nature of your loss, tracking and documenting your loss now will help you secure a full insurance recovery later.

Third, carefully review and comply with your policy’s notice requirements. If you have experienced a loss or a claim, you should immediately notify your insurer. Even if you are only aware of a potential claim, your policy may require you to provide notice to your insurer of the events that could ultimately lead to a claim or loss. Some notice requirements in cyber policies can be quite short. After providing notice, you may receive a coverage response or “reservation of rights” from your insurer. Be cautious in taking any unfavorable response at face value. Particularly in cases of widespread loss, an insurer’s initial coverage evaluation may not accurately reflect the available coverage.

If you are unsure of your policy’s notice obligations or available coverage, or if you suspect your insurer is not affording your organization the coverage that you purchased, coverage counsel can assist your organization in securing coverage. Above all, don’t hesitate to secure the coverage to which you are entitled.

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The Hidden Dangers: Long-Term Effects of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injuries can have life-changing impacts on a person’s life, and understandably so because they result from injuries to the brain either through a massive blow to the head or injury by a penetrative object into the brain matter.

However, not all types of traumatic brain injuries have quite dramatic symptoms, and a mild TBI (traumatic brain injury) is one such injury. They result from a relatively minor blow to the head or a jerking of the head, causing injuries to the brain tissue.

While most mild TBIs resolve in a few weeks, some can affect the victim’s life in the long term.

Symptoms of a Mild TBI

If you have suffered a blow to the head in an accident, you need to pay attention to your symptoms, as it can help you identify signs of a mild TBI, also known as a concussion. Symptoms like passing out briefly, headache, memory loss, confusion, loss of balance, sensitivity to light and noise, problems keeping balance, tingling in your fingers, etc., are indicative of a concussion.

However, other injuries can present similar symptoms, so it is best to have a doctor make that determination. Also, it is important to note that concussions can go undetected for days because they tend to have delayed symptoms.

Unfortunately, taking too much time before seeking medical attention for a mild TBI can introduce treatment gaps, which can result in complications when seeking compensation for the long-term effects of a concussion. A timely hospital visit helps create a link between an accident and symptoms that could show days after the accident. Which is why personal injury lawyers always insist on seeking medical attention even when you feel okay.

Long-Term Effects of a Mild TBI

While most effects of a concussion will be gone after 90 days of suffering an accident, and this is for cases of severe injuries, there are situations where the effects of an injury can last years or a lifetime. Common long-term effects of a mild TBI on a person’s life include:

LONG-TERM MEMORY LOSS

Memory loss is pretty common after a concussion. However, it involves losing a recollection of the few minutes before and after an injury.

In some cases, the affected person can start remembering things once forgotten. However, in severe cases, memory loss can impact a person’s life in the long term.

DEPRESSION

Many people will develop symptoms of depression after a concussion, usually as a result of chemical changes resulting from the brain injury. While most symptoms will disappear as the brain recovers, some people may have to live with the symptoms for an extended period.

In some cases, symptoms of depression won’t show until some time after other symptoms are gone.

COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT

In most cases, the effect of a mild TBI on a person’s thinking and cognitive abilities resolves in a few months at most.

But there is no guarantee that your cognitive abilities will return to your pre-injury levels, especially with relatively severe concussions or injuries that went undetected for a long time.

Treatment and Support for Mild TBI

You may not need hospitalization after a TBI. Often, doctors focus on treating the symptoms and may prescribe cognitive and behavioral therapy to address the psychological and injury effects on a person’s mental well-being.

If the injuries resulted from an accident and another person’s negligence was to blame, you could consider talking to a personal injury lawyer to help recover damages.

Weather & Climate Risk Management Part IV: Taxation of Weather Risk Management Products

Are there differences in the way in which weather derivatives and weather insurance are taxed?

Yes. Weather insurance products, including parametric insurance, are taxed as insurance; and derivatives are taxed in accordance with the tax rules applicable to the particular type of derivative product held by the taxpayer. A business needs to carefully consider these tax differences to determine the best product or products to meet its weather risk management needs.

How is insurance taxed to a policyholder?

When a business buys weather insurance, it pays a premium to the insurance company so that the company assumes the business risks set out in the policy. Assuring the policy is purchased to manage a business’s legitimate weather-related risk, the premium is deductible under Internal Revenue Code (Code) § 162 as an ordinary and necessary business expense.

If insurance coverage is triggered and a policyholder receives a payout under the policy, the payout is not taxable up to the policyholder’s tax basis if the payment reimburses the policyholder for property damage or loss. In other words, payments under insurance policies are not taxable up to the policyholder’s tax basis because the payments simply restore (in whole or in part) the policyholder to the financial position it was in before it incurred the loss. If the reimbursement amount under the policy exceeds the policyholder’s tax basis, the amount it receives over its tax basis is treated as taxable income.[1]

Business interruption insurance covers losses (such as lost profits and ongoing expenses) from events that close or disrupt the normal functioning of the policyholder’s business. The payout amount is often based on past business results. Business interruption insurance proceeds are likely to be taxable to the policyholder because they compensate the policyholder for lost revenue.

To ensure that a policyholder receives the most favorable tax treatment, it must carefully document its business purpose for entering into the insurance, the amount of its tax basis, and receipt of the insurance proceeds.

How are derivatives taxed?

It depends on whether the taxpayer has entered into a futures contract, forward contract, option, swap, cap, or floor. The taxpayer must then consider its status in entering into each derivative: is it acting as a hedger, dealer, trader, or investor? The taxpayer must also determine whether it has made all the required tax identifications and elections. In dealing with derivatives, the taxpayer must go through this three-step process for each product it is considering. Hedgers and dealers receive ordinary income and loss on their derivative transactions, while traders and investors receive capital gain and loss.

Why might a taxpayer want to be treated as a hedger with respect to its weather derivatives?

A taxpayer seeking to use weather derivatives to manage its weather-related business risks typically wants to be treated as a tax hedger so that the gain or loss on its derivative transactions qualify as tax hedges. This would allow the taxpayer to match its derivative gains or losses with its weather-related income or losses. Because ordinary property generates ordinary income or loss, a business hedger typically wants to receive ordinary income or loss on its weather derivatives. In other words, a hedger wants to match the tax treatment it receives on its hedges with that of the items it is hedging. Many risk management transactions with respect to weather-related risks do not meet the hedge definition (see the discussed below). For a detailed discussion of the tax hedging rules, see the forthcoming Q&A with Andie, “Business Taxation of Hedging Transactions.”

What is required for a weather derivative to be treated as a tax hedge?

To qualify as a tax hedge, the transaction must manage interest rate fluctuations, currency fluctuations, or price risk with respect to ordinary property, borrowings, or ordinary obligations.[2] In addition to meeting the definition of a tax hedge, the taxpayer must comply with the identification requirements set out at Code §§ 1221(a)(7) and 1221(b)(2) and the tax accounting requirements set out at Treas. Reg. § 1.446-4.[3]

What is the tax analysis that a taxpayer should conduct to determine if its weather derivatives qualify as tax hedges?

When entering into a weather derivative, a taxpayer should conduct the following tax analysis: (1) is the transaction entered into in the ordinary course of its trade or business (2) primarily (3) to manage price risk (4) on ordinary property or obligations (5) held or to be held by the taxpayer. If the answer to all of these questions is “yes,” then the taxpayer has a qualified tax hedge if—but only if—it complies with all of the required identification rules set out in Code §§ 1221(a)(7) and 1221(b)(2) and as explained in Treasury Regulation § 1.1221-2. If the taxpayer cannot answer all of these questions with a “yes,” then the weather derivative transaction is not a tax hedge, and it is subject to the tax rules that apply to capital assets.[4] The requirement that a taxpayer must be hedging ordinary property, borrowings, or obligations means that favorable tax hedging treatment is not available for many legitimate weather risk management activities.

What types of assets, obligations, and borrowings qualify as ordinary property and ordinary obligations for purposes of the tax hedging rules?

Weather derivatives qualify as tax hedges if they can be tied to price risk with respect to ordinary assets or ordinary obligations. In many situations, however, weather derivatives are entered into to manage a taxpayer’s anticipated profitability, sales volume, plant capacity, or similar issues. These risks are not the transactions that receive tax hedge treatment.

Ordinary property includes property that if sold or exchanged by the taxpayer would not produce capital gain or loss without regard to the taxpayer’s holding period. Items included in a taxpayer’s inventory—such as natural gas or heating oil held by a dealer in those products—are treated as ordinary property that can be hedged. Qualifying hedges can also include hedges of purchases and sales of commodities for which the taxpayer is a dealer, such as electricity, natural gas, or heating oil. If a utility agrees to purchase electricity at a fixed price in the future, for example, the utility is exposed to price risk if it cannot resell the fixed-price electricity for at least the amount it paid to purchase that electricity. Accordingly, the utility could agree to sell electricity under a futures contract (short position) that would qualify as a tax hedge.

On the liability side of a business, the hedge could relate to a taxpayer’s price risk with respect to an ordinary obligation. An ordinary obligation is an obligation the performance of which (or its termination) would not produce a capital gain or loss. For example, a forward contract to sell electricity or natural gas at a fixed price entered into by a dealer is treated as an ordinary obligation. In addition, a utility that enters into a fixed price forward sales contract agreeing to sell electricity at a fixed price has an ordinary obligation to deliver electricity at that fixed price.

What sorts of weather derivative transactions are not tax hedges?

Many legitimate risk management activities do not qualify as tax hedges. Weather derivative transactions that protect overall business profitability (such as volume or revenue risk) are not directly related to ordinary property or ordinary obligations. As a result, weather derivatives entered into to protect a business’s revenue stream or its net income against volume or revenue risk are not tax hedges.

Many taxpayers in the normal course of their businesses enter into weather derivatives to manage volume or revenue risks of reduced demand for their products or services. These transactions are not tax hedges. The taxpayer is not managing a price risk (either current or anticipated) attributable to ordinary assets, borrowings, or ordinary obligations.

Take, for example, a ski resort or amusement park operator that enters into a weather derivative to protect itself against adverse weather conditions that are likely to result in a reduction in the number of skiers or amusement park visitors. The taxpayer’s risk management efforts in these cases either relate to its investment in its facility (which for the most part consists of real estate and business assets that are not taxed as ordinary assets) or to its expected revenue. Similarly, a power generator that hedges its plant capacity or its revenue stream with a weather derivative tied to the number of Cooling Degree Days would not meet the definition of a tax hedge.

Why don’t more weather derivatives qualify as tax hedges?

As part of Congress’ efforts to modernize the tax rules with respect to hedging, it specifically authorized the Treasury to issue regulations to extend the hedging definition to include other risks that the Treasury sets out in regulations.[5] The Treasury, unfortunately, has not proposed or issued any regulations extending the benefits of tax hedging. This means that weather derivative transactions entered into to manage weather-related volume or revenue risks do not qualify as tax hedges. In this situation, the taxpayer receives capital gain or loss on the derivative product.

What are some examples of weather derivatives that can qualify as tax hedges?

A weather derivative qualifies as a tax hedge if it manages the taxpayer’s price risks with respect to ordinary assets or obligations. Thus, a taxpayer entering into weather derivatives primarily to manage its price risk with respect to increased supply costs will meet the definition of a hedging transaction. Such a transaction manages the taxpayer’s price risks with respect to ordinary property.

If, for example, a commodity dealer buys a put option (or sells a call option) on a designated weather event to protect it against price risks with respect to its existing inventories or future fixed-price commitments, the dealer has entered into a qualified tax hedge, provided it meets the identification requirements.

A heating oil distributor with heating oil inventory (or forward contracts to purchase heating oil at a fixed price) might enter into a weather swap to protect itself from the risk of an unseasonably warm heating season. This swap should qualify as a tax hedge because the swap manages the distributor’s risk of a decline in the market price for its heating oil inventories (or a decline in its fixed-price forward contract purchase commitments) due to unseasonably warm weather.

If an electric utility enters into forward commitments to sell electricity at fixed prices for delivery in the summer cooling months, it may buy a call option on a designated weather event that would qualify as a tax hedge to the extent the option protects the utility against the risk of being unable to acquire or generate the electricity at a low enough price if the demand for electricity in the cooling season is higher than expected because of unseasonably warm weather resulting in higher electricity prices.

Conclusion

All organizations face weather and climate risks. As part of their enterprise-wide risk management, they have available to them a number of weather risk transfer tools. This series on weather and climate risk provides a detailed review of weather risk management. Organizations can look to standardized futures and option contracts traded on regulated commodity exchanges; they can enter into customized OTC weather derivatives designed with their specific weather risks in mind; they can put in place indemnity insurance; they can purchase parametric insurance; or they can mix and match multiple derivative products and insurance coverages to meet their specific organization’s needs. In Part I of this Q&A series on Weather & Climate Risk Management, we considered the landscape and context within which weather and climate decision making takes place, along with the overarching risk management approaches and principles that apply. In Part II, we looked at the details on the various weather risk management products. In Part III, we addressed the regulation of these products; and in Part IV, we reviewed the taxation of these various classes of products.

[1] Taxability is subject to a nonrecognition provision at Code § 1033(a) if the taxpayer complies with the requirements to purchase “qualified replacement property.” https://irc.bloombergtax.com/public/uscode/doc/irc/section_1033

[2] Treas. Reg. § 1221-2 and Code §§ 1221(a)(7) and 1221(b)(2).

[3] For a detailed discussion of the tax hedging rules see my forthcoming Q&A with Andie, “Business Taxation of Hedging Transactions” due out in Spring 2024.

[4] If the taxpayer is a dealer or a commodity derivatives dealer, the weather derivative would be an ordinary asset in the taxpayer’s hands.

[5] Code § 1221(b)(2)(A)(iii).

Insurance — Do You Know What’s in Your Bank’s Policies?

There are many different types of insurance — directors and officers (D&O), employment practices liability (EPLI), and general liability, to name a few. Unfortunately, many clients do not know what is in their policy or policies, including what is covered, their deductibles or retention, or, in some unfortunate cases, that they have no policy at all.

This article attempts to help you answer some simple questions about what to look for when you are buying a policy and what to look for in a current policy when you need to use it. It is not an attempt to promote any particular policy, as each policy has to be read in light of the specific facts at issue.

Buying the cheapest — you may get what you pay for.

In too many cases, we find that clients have simply purchased the cheapest policy they can find. The reasons for this vary. Maybe the client asked for the cheapest policy, maybe the agent simply got the client the cheapest policy, or maybe there was no real conversation at all between the insured (client) and the agent except to “get some insurance.”

This is never an issue — until it is. By way of example, let’s say a lawsuit is filed against you that should kick in your D&O or EPLI policy. You then turn the lawsuit over to your agent for defense and coverage. And then, one of several increasingly common scenarios occurs. You discover that your deductible or retention is very high, e.g., the first $100,000 is on you. Or you discover that many employment cases could be resolved or dismissed for less than that, and that for a little more on the front end, you could have had a lower deductible. Or you discover that what you purchased does not cover alleged fiduciary breaches by your directors and officers, and you could have purchased that coverage if you had asked.

You also might discover that you could have purchased, for a small additional amount, wage and hour coverage that would have covered the overtime lawsuit you were just served, but no one ever specifically talked with the agent about that. You also might discover that the attorney you have worked with for years will not be able to handle the case because there is no “choice of counsel” in the policy. In many cases, spending 30 minutes with your agent (and probably an attorney who has experience working with you) could have resolved these issues — that now are out of your control.

The point is, spending the necessary time with your agent (and attorney) is something that should be done before any policy is purchased or renewed. This allows you to express what you want and consider the options available. It also allows you to avoid issues such as not being able to use the attorney of your choice.

Do you have a claims-made or an occurrence policy?

While each policy and case must be examined individually, generally, an occurrence policy covers claims arising from acts or incidents that occurred during the policy period. This means that if the incident occurred during the policy period and the policy was in effect and in good standing, the claim will be covered, even if you get sued over that incident after the policy has expired.

Claims-made policies are entirely different animals. Claims-made policies generally cover only claims made during the policy period. The claim must also be reported to the insurer as required by the policy.

Generally, claims-made policies are cheaper, as they usually provide coverage for a shorter period of time. Again, however, be aware of “going cheap.” Claims-made policies that are not renewed or are canceled — and for which tail coverage is not purchased — can create exposure for an incident that occurred during the policy period. This can happen, for example, if you simply let the policy lapse and a year or so later someone files a suit against you that would have been a “claim” under your claims-made policy but it was not reported when the policy was effective. It can also occur if you change insurers.

The above is a very general description, and any discussion about the type of policy you should buy or what to do when you renew is beyond the scope of this article, but you should absolutely consult with your agent (and likely your attorney) about any specific needs or concerns you know of prior to purchasing or renewing any policy.

Do you have coverage and defense, or just defense?

Be aware that some policies provide for attorney’s fees and costs to defend claims made against you as well as coverage for any settlement or judgment against you. Some policies, however, only provide for attorney’s fees and costs. Again, this goes to what type of policy you want, what you can afford, and knowing the risks of what you have versus what you do not have.

I have had the unfortunate situation where a client thought they had a policy providing coverage and defense, but the policy provided only defense. The matter involved multiple plaintiffs and conflicting witness testimony that made dismissal of the case prior to any trial impossible. While the resolution of the case was not substantially out of line for the average federal court employment case, the money came directly from the client’s pocket because the policy only provided for defense costs, not coverage for any settlement or verdict. When questions arose about why that type of policy was provided by the agent, it was clear the client had only told the agent to “get some insurance” and made no specific requests.

To sum up, it is unfortunately common that when purchasing insurance of any kind, insureds do not actively engage their agent (or ask for any advice from their attorney) about what types of policies and coverage they may need. This creates many issues (deductible, choice of counsel, lack of coverage, etc.) that likely could have been avoided. There is no guarantee that any issue could be avoided, as no one knows what type of claim or claims might be made in the future, but spending the necessary time on the front end could save many headaches on the back end if your agent gets as much specificity as possible from you.

Concussions and Their Impact: Recognizing the Signs and Seeking Help

A concussion is a mild form of traumatic brain injury and is usually caused by blunt force to the head. In some cases, it can result from a back-and-forth jerking of the head, resulting in the brain matter being dashed against the skull wall. It’s a pretty common injury in children, individuals engaged in contact sports, and Michigan car accidents.

Most concussions are not life-threatening. However, some cases can develop complications that could significantly impact a victim’s life. So, the first step in getting timely treatment is understanding its symptoms and what you ought to do after suffering an injury.

Signs and Symptoms of a Concussion

Symptoms and signs of a concussion fall into three categories: physical, cognitive, and psychological or emotional.

PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS

Where a significant blow to the head causes a concussion, the victim could pass out for a few seconds. However, this is not always the case, so you cannot use passing out as the litmus test for concussions. Often, patients exhibit symptoms like headaches, nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, dizziness, loss of balance, slurred speech, fatigue, ringing ears, tingling in the hands, loss of taste or smell, etc.

COGNITIVE SYMPTOMS

With a concussion being a brain injury, it is unsurprising that it may cause problems with brain function. In some patients, a concussion will cause problems with concentration, confusion, forgetfulness, feeling slowed down in your thinking, and trouble finding words.

EMOTIONAL SYMPTOMS

A concussion can, in some patients, cause emotional problems, resulting in a deviation from a person’s normal behavior. For example, patients may become easily irritable, report feeling foggy or “out of it,” experience immense sadness, and have anxiety.

When to See a Doctor

In most cases, symptoms of a concussion will start to show immediately after an accident, in which case seeing a doctor makes absolute sense. However, concussions are among the few types of injuries that tend to have delayed onset. In some cases, it can take up to 72 hours or even more for the first signs of a concussion to show.

If you are in an accident where you have suffered a blow to the head or are violently shaken, it is always a good idea to see a doctor. You may not have to call 911 if your symptoms are not as severe, but it is best to see a doctor on the same day or within 72 hours of an accident at most.

Timely medical interventions help in several ways. It helps stop the deterioration of an injury, shortens recovery time, and provides the documentation necessary for filing a personal injury claim if you intend to seek compensation.

What to Do To Recover Damages

Once your health is taken care of, focus on evidence gathering, starting with scene documentation in pictures and video. If there were any witnesses to the incident, talk to them, record their statements, and get their contacts so you can easily trace them if you need help with your case. If it is a car accident, you will need to get the other driver’s insurance and vehicle registration details.

Besides evidence, you need to prepare for the legal battle. It doesn’t always have to go all the way to court, but you will still need to work with a personal injury lawyer to get the best chances at recovering fair compensation.

Personal injury lawyers bring knowledge, investigation and evidence-gathering skills, negotiation skills, and respect, which altogether help you in mitigating mistakes and increasing your chances of getting a fair outcome.

The Original Annuity Riddle

The New Annuity Mystery – Why are Annuities Suddenly so Attractive?

The Annuity Product Enigma

Client Self Help

How to Help Your Estate Planning Clients

Podcast

References

Further reading focused on Income Annuities

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Review Your Documents and Security Interests

Insurance

Where is Your Collateral?

Keeping Up on Audits

Financial Reporting and Covenants

Taxes

Used Inventory Levels and Advance Rates

Manufacturer Specific Issues

Explaining What You Do

Conclusion – Hope for the Best, Prepare For The Worst

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Provider Network Composition and Reimbursement NQTL Types

Requirements for Comparative Analyses and Outcomes Data Evaluation

Examples of Network Analyses Included in the Final Rules

Epstein Becker Green’s Perspective

ENDNOTES

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Symptoms of a Mild TBI

Long-Term Effects of a Mild TBI

LONG-TERM MEMORY LOSS

DEPRESSION

COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT

Treatment and Support for Mild TBI

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Are there differences in the way in which weather derivatives and weather insurance are taxed?

How is insurance taxed to a policyholder?

How are derivatives taxed?

Why might a taxpayer want to be treated as a hedger with respect to its weather derivatives?

What is required for a weather derivative to be treated as a tax hedge?

What is the tax analysis that a taxpayer should conduct to determine if its weather derivatives qualify as tax hedges?

What types of assets, obligations, and borrowings qualify as ordinary property and ordinary obligations for purposes of the tax hedging rules?

What sorts of weather derivative transactions are not tax hedges?

Why don’t more weather derivatives qualify as tax hedges?

What are some examples of weather derivatives that can qualify as tax hedges?

Conclusion

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Signs and Symptoms of a Concussion

PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS

COGNITIVE SYMPTOMS

EMOTIONAL SYMPTOMS

When to See a Doctor

What to Do To Recover Damages

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