Tag: business

Privacy Tip #309 – Women Poised to Fill Gap of Cybersecurity Talent

I have been advocating for gender equality in Cybersecurity for years [related podcast and post].

The statistics on the participation of women in the field of cybersecurity continue to be bleak, despite significant outreach efforts, including “Girls Who Code” and programs to encourage girls to explore STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) subjects.

Women are just now rising to positions from which they can help other women break into the field, land high-paying jobs, and combat the dearth of talent in technology. Judy Dinn, the new Chief Information Officer of TD Bank NA, is doing just that. One of her priorities is to encourage women to pursue tech careers. She recently told the Wall Street Journal that she “really, really always wants to make sure that female representation—whether they’re in grade school, high school, universities—that that funnel is always full.”

The Wall Street Journal article states that a study by AnitaB.org found that “women made up about 29% of the U.S. tech workforce in 2020.”  It is well known that companies are fighting for tech and cybersecurity talent and that there are many more open positions than talent to fill them. The tech and cybersecurity fields are growing with unlimited possibilities.

This is where women should step in. With increased support, and prioritized recruiting efforts that encourage women to enter fields focused on technology, we can tap more talent and begin to fill the gap of cybersecurity talent in the U.S.

Article By Linn F. Freedman of Robinson & Cole LLP

For more privacy and cybersecurity legal news, click here to visit the National Law Review.

Copyright © 2021 Robinson & Cole LLP. All rights reserved.

Ontario’s Employment Laws: Several Significant Changes Coming Under Bill 27, the Working for Workers Act, 2021

On November 30, 2021, the Government of Ontario passed Bill 27, the Working for Workers Act, 2021. Bill 27 amends a number of statutes, including the Employment Standards Act and the Occupational Health and Safety Act.

According to the government, this legislation achieves a number of goals, including improving employees’ work-life balance, prohibiting noncompete agreements to increase competition in business and labour markets, facilitating the registration of internationally trained professionals, and implementing a licensing regime for temporary help agencies and recruiters.

Amendments to the Employment Standards Act, 2000

Right to Disconnect from Work

The Working for Workers Act, 2021requires that employers with 25 or more employees at the beginning of the year implement a written “disconnect from work” policy regarding disconnecting from work during nonworking hours. Under the act, the term “disconnecting from work” is defined as “engaging in work-related communications, including emails, telephone calls, video calls or the sending or reviewing of other messages, so as to be free from the performance of work.” Once an employer prepares or amends a policy, employers will have 30 days to share copies of this policy with employees. Employers must also provide new employees this policy within 30 days of being hired.

Once the act receives Royal Assent, employers will have six months from that date to develop their written policies. Following this initial year, employers will have to prepare their policies by no later than March 1 of each year.

The regulations that will be promulgated to establish the content of the policy have not yet been published. As such, it is not yet known what specific steps employers must take to prohibit after-hours work and whether they will be restricted in terms of which employees may or may not be permitted or required to perform after-hours work, in addition to other unsettled issues.

Prohibition of Noncompete Agreements

The act prohibits employers from including noncompete clauses in any agreement they form with an employee. If this provision is violated, the noncompete agreement will be void.

There are two exceptions to this rule.

  1. Employees in an executive role are excepted from this provision. An “executive” is an employee who holds the office of a chief executive position, including that of president, chief executive officer, and chief administrative officer.
  2. There is also an exception when there has been “a sale of a business or part of a business” (which includes a lease). If the purchaser and seller enter into a noncompete agreement, and the seller becomes an employee of the purchaser immediately after the sale, this prohibition will not apply.

Once Royal Assent is received, the noncompete prohibition is deemed to come into force on October 25, 2021.

With the passing the act, Ontario has become the first province to require “disconnect from work” policies and to prohibit noncompete agreements outright.

Licensing Requirements for Temporary Help Agencies

The act specifies that temporary help agencies and recruiters must now apply for a license. Anyone wishing to engage with a temporary help agency or recruiter must ensure that they are licensed, as knowingly doing business with an unlicensed agency or recruiter is prohibited under the act.

Temporary help agencies or recruiters may be refused a license and may have their licenses revoked or suspended for a number of reasons, including:

  • using recruiters that charge fees to foreign nationals;
  • providing “false or misleading information in an application”; and
  • situation in which the director of Employment Standards has reasonable grounds to believe that “the applicant will not carry on business with honesty and integrity and in accordance with the law.”

If applicants dispute the refusal, revocation, or suspension of their licenses, they can seek a review at the Ontario Labour Relations Board.

These amendments will come into force on a day to be proclaimed by the lieutenant governor.

Amendments to the Employment Protection for Foreign Nationals Act, 2009

Prohibition on the Collection of Recruitment Fees

To protect foreign nationals from predatory recruitment practices, the act prohibits employers and recruiters from knowingly using the services of recruiters that charge foreign nationals for their services.

A recruiter that charges a fee, and an employer or recruiter that violates this prohibition will be liable for repaying the fees charged to the foreign national.

These amendments will come into force on the day the Working for Workers Act, 2021 receives Royal Assent.

Amendments to the Fair Access to Regulated Professions And Compulsory Trades Act, 2006

Facilitating the Registration of Internationally Trained Professionals

To facilitate the registration of internationally trained professionals, the act specifies that Canadian experience will not be a qualification for registration in a regulated profession. Regulated professions may apply to be exempted from this rule “for the purposes of public health and safety in accordance with the regulations.” Regulated professions will also be required to develop accelerated registration processes to aid with emergency preparedness.

The fairness commissioner will also evaluate language proficiency requirements to ensure that any French or English testing does not contravene the regulations.

These amendments will come into force on the day the act receives Royal Assent.

Amendments to the Occupational Health and Safety Act

Mandating Washroom Access for Delivery Persons

Under the act, a new requirement is created that if a person requests washroom access in the course of delivering or picking up a package from a business. Business covered by the act must allow use of their washrooms.

Businesses will be exempt from this requirement if:

  • Sharing the washroom is unreasonable or impractical because of health and safety reasons;
  • The context makes sharing the washroom unreasonable or impractical; or
  • The delivery person would have to enter a dwelling to use the washroom.

These amendments will come into force on a day to be proclaimed by the lieutenant governor.

Amendments to the Workplace Safety and Insurance Act, 1997

Distribution of Surplus Insurance Fund

The act includes a provision that specifies that if there is a surplus in the Workplace Safety and Insurance Board’s insurance fund, this surplus may be distributed among eligible employers. The insurance board will have discretion to determine the timing and the amounts to be granted to eligible employers, based on factors such as adherence to the Workplace Safety and Insurance Act. Based on these factors, the insurance board will also be empowered to exclude any eligible employers from the distribution of surplus funds. Employers will not be able to appeal the funding decisions made by the insurance board in this respect.

These amendments will come into force on a day to be proclaimed by the lieutenant governor.

Amendments to the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs Act

Increasing Information Gathering in Relation to “agriculture, food or rural affairs”

Under the act, the minister of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs is granted the authority to “collect information, including personal information, directly or indirectly” related to “agriculture, food or rural affairs” for the purposes of emergency response and public health. Personal information will not be collected, used, or disclosed in cases where other sources of information are available to fulfil the same purpose.

These amendments will come into force on the day the act receives Royal Assent.

Next Steps

Bill 27 passed its third reading on November 30, 2021. At the time of publication of this article, the legislation has not received Royal Assent, but it likely will shortly. Once Royal Assent is received, some amendments come into force immediately, while others follow different timelines. Employers may want to begin reviewing the new legislation, noting any important dates and features relevant to their organizations. In addition, employers may want to review their policies, practices, and contracts to ensure compliance.

Article By Michael Comartin and Gloria Ilunga of Ogletree, Deakins, Nash, Smoak & Stewart, P.C.

For more labor and employment legal news, click here to visit the National Law Review.
© 2021, Ogletree, Deakins, Nash, Smoak & Stewart, P.C., All Rights Reserved.

Same As It Ever Was: FDA Reiterates That CBD Cannot Be Included in Food or Dietary Supplements

While we enter a new season this week, the same cannot be said for the FDA which, on November 16, reiterated that its approach to regulating the cannabidiol (CBD) industry will be “the same as it ever was”—a regulatory minefield. Grail Sipes, acting Deputy Center Director for Regulatory Policy at the FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, emphasized the agency’s position that it needs additional CBD research and safety data before the agency will consider CBD for uses beyond prescription drugs, including usage as a food additive or dietary supplement. This, she said, is because “clear answers to many important questions are still lacking, such as what adverse reactions may be associated with CBD from hemp-derived products and what risks are associated with the long term use of these products.”

So why should industry stakeholders care about the FDA’s opinion anyway? Wasn’t hemp-derived CBD legalized at the federal level by the Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018, also known as the Farm Bill?

Yes, but as we discussed in a previous blog post, the FDA and FTC have overlapping enforcement authority over CBD marketing, with the FDA having primary authority over labeling. The FDA has previously issued guidance stating that CBD can be used as an ingredient in cosmetics so long as it does not cause the product to be “adulterated or misbranded.” However, a product containing CBD cannot be marketed as a drug absent FDA approval—a lengthy and costly process. Companies marketing CBD products must therefore ensure compliance with the FDA’s labeling requirements and guidance regarding CBD products.

The FDA has not been shy to issue warning letters to CBD companies that fail to heed the agency’s labeling requirements and guidance. Starting in April 2019, the FDA (together with the FTC) began issuing warning letters to companies marketing CBD products as treatments and cures for a variety of diseases and illnesses. Those agencies continued to issue warning letters for marketing and labeling violations throughout 2019, largely for improper health-based claims about CBD products (those letters are described in more detail here and here). The most recent iteration came in 2021 when the agencies issued two warning letters to companies selling over-the-counter (OTC) drugs for pain relief that contained CBD. Sipes made clear the FDA will continue to monitor the CBD marketplace and issue warning letters to companies making improper health claims in her November 16 comments.

Given these comments, we can expect the cat-and-mouse game between federal regulators and CBD companies that push the marketing envelope to continue. To mitigate the risk of falling within the FDA’s crosshairs, CBD companies must ensure compliance with the various state and federal regulations governing the labeling and advertising of their products. We provided several marketing dos and don’ts in a previous blog post. But given the FDA’s unchanging position, the biggest takeaway remains the same: don’t make claims that a CBD product “can prevent, treat, or cure” or a disease.

Article By Rachel L. Sodée and J. Hunter Robinson of Bradley Arant Boult Cummings LLP

For more news on biotech, food, and drug law, click here to visit the National Law Review.

© 2021 Bradley Arant Boult Cummings LLP

DOL Publishes Final Rule Implementing President Biden’s $15 Federal Contractor Minimum Wage Executive Order 14026

The Department of Labor (DOL) has published its Final Rule implementing President Biden’s April 27, 2021, Executive Order 14026 raising the minimum wage from $10.95 an hour to $15 an hour (with increases to be published annually). The new wage rate will take effect January 30, 2022, though as discussed below, the rate increases will not be applied to contracts automatically on that date.

The Final Rule is substantially similar to the DOL’s proposed Notice of Rulemaking issued in July 2021 and is more expansive in coverage than the current federal contractor minimum wage requirements in effect under former President Obama’s Executive Order 13658.

$15 Wage Rate Does Not Apply to All Federal Contractors, All Federal Contracts, or All Workers

Covered Contracts

The $15 wage rate will apply to workers on four specific types of federal contracts that are performed in the U.S. (including the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and certain U.S. territories):

  • Procurement contracts for construction covered by the Davis-Bacon Act (DBA), but not the Davis-Bacon Related Acts
  • Service Contract Act (SCA) covered contracts
  • Concessions contracts – meaning a contract under which the federal government grants a right to use federal property, including land or facilities, for furnishing services. The term “concessions contract” includes, but is not limited to, a contract the principal purpose of which is to furnish food, lodging, automobile fuel, souvenirs, newspaper stands, or recreational equipment, regardless of whether the services are of direct benefit to the government, its personnel, or the general public
  • Contracts related to federal property and the offering of services to the general public, federal employees, and their dependents

The Executive Order does not apply to contracts or other funding instruments, including:

  • Contracts for the manufacturing or furnishing of materials, supplies, articles, or equipment to the federal government
  • Grants
  • Contracts or agreements with Indian Tribes under the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act
  • Contracts excluded from coverage under the SCA or DBA and specifically excluded in the implementing regulations and
  • Other contracts specifically excluded (See NPRM Section 23.40)

Effective Date; Definition of “New” Contracts Expanded

The Final Rule specifies that the wage requirement will apply to new contracts and contract solicitations as of January 30, 2022. Despite the “new contract” limitation, the regulations, consistent with the language of the Biden Executive Order, strongly encourage federal agencies to require the $15 wage for all existing contracts and solicitations issued between the date of the Executive Order and the effective date of January 30, 2022.

Similarly, agencies are “strongly encouraged” to require the new wage where they have issued a solicitation before the effective date and entered into a new contract resulting from the solicitation within 60 days of such effective date.

Pursuant to the Final Rule, the new minimum wage will apply to new contracts; new contract-like instruments; new solicitations; extensions or renewals of existing contracts or contract-like instruments; and exercises of options on existing contracts or contract-like instruments on or after January 30, 2022.

Geographic Limitations Expanded

The Final Rule applies coverage to workers outside the 50 states and expands the definition of “United States” to include the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Outer Continental Shelf lands as defined in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, American Samoa, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Wake Island, and Johnston Island.

Workers Performing Work “On or In Connection With” a Covered Contract

Only workers who are non-exempt under the Fair Labor Standards Act and performing work on or in connection with a covered contract must be paid $15 per hour. The wage requirement applies only to hours worked on or in connection with a covered contract.

A worker performs “on” a contract if the worker directly performs the specific services called for by the contract. A worker performs “in connection with” a contract if the worker’s work activities are necessary to the performance of a contract but are not the specific services called for by the contract.

The Final Rule includes a “less-than-20% exception” for those workers who only perform work “in connection with” a covered contract, but do not perform any direct work on the contract. For workers who spend less than 20% of their hours in a workweek working indirectly in connection with a covered contract, the contractor need not pay the $15 wage for any hours for that workweek.

Tipped Employees

Under the Final Rule, DOL is phasing out lower wages and tip credits for tipped employees on covered contracts. Employers must pay tipped employees $10.50 per hour in 2022 and increase those wages incrementally, under a proposed formula in the NPRM. Beginning in 2024, tipped employees must receive the full federal contractor wage rate.

$15 Wage Contract Clause Requirements, Enforcement Obligations

The Final Rule provides that a Minimum Wage contract clause will appear in covered prime contracts, except that procurement contracts subject to the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) will include an applicable FAR Clause (to be issued by the Federal Acquisition Regulation Council) providing notice of the wage requirement.

In addition, covered prime contractors and subcontractors must include the Contract Clause in covered subcontracts and, as will be in the applicable FAR Clause, procurement prime contractors and subcontractors will be required to include the FAR clause in covered subcontracts.

In addition, the Final Rule provides that contractors and subcontractors:

“… shall require, as a condition of payment, that the subcontractor include the minimum wage contract clause in any lower-tier subcontracts … [and] shall be responsible for the compliance by any subcontractor or lower-tier subcontractor with the Executive Order minimum wage requirements, whether or not the contract clause was included in the subcontract.”

The DOL will investigate complaints and enforce the requirements but under the Final Rule, contracting agencies may also enforce the minimum wage requirements and take actions including contract termination, suspension and debarment for violations.

Preparation for the $15 wage

To prepare, contractors and subcontractors of covered contracts should consider taking the following steps:

  • Review existing multi-year contracts with options or extensions that may be exercised on or after January 30, 2022, to plan for wage increases at the exercise of the option or extension, but also review any contract modifications to see if an agency is including the requirement early than required, as is allowed under the Final Rule
  • Identify job titles that typically perform work directly on covered contracts and those that perform indirect work above 20% in a workweek
  • Plan for wage increases for covered workers who are not already making $15 per hour
  • Determine impact on existing collective bargaining agreements particularly on SCA-covered contracts
  • Prepare for submission of price/equitable adjustments based on wage increases if allowed under the contract terms

Article By Leslie A. Stout-Tabackman of Jackson Lewis P.C.

For more labor and employment legal news, read more at the National Law Review.

Jackson Lewis P.C. © 2021

USCIS Announces Policy Changes for H-4, L-2, and E-1/E-2/E-3 Dependent EAD Workers

Since the publication of our November 12, 2021 alert, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) issued policy guidance following the November 10, 2021 settlement agreement and updated the I-9 Handbook providing for automatic extensions of Employment Authorization Document (EAD) cards for H-4, L-2, and E-1 Dependent, E-2 Dependent, or E-3 Dependent visa holders. The USCIS policy guidance can be found here.

As described in our previous alert, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) entered into a settlement agreement following a lawsuit brought by H-4 and L-2 spouses suffering from long-delayed adjudication for the processing of applications for Employment Authorization Document (EAD) cards. Effective November 12, 2021, USCIS allows for automatic extensions of employment authorization, in certain circumstances, while an EAD renewal application has been filed and is pending with USCIS for H-4, L-2, and now E-1/E-2/E-3 dependent (“E dependent”) spouses. In addition, USCIS has now changed its statutory interpretation and will soon afford employment authorization incident to status for L-2 spouses, E-1 Treaty Trader dependent spouses, E-2 Investor dependent spouses, and E-3 specialty occupation professionals from Australia dependent spouses. Once this policy takes effect, L-2 and E dependent spouses will no longer need to apply for an EAD card in order to be authorized to work.

Automatic Extension of EADs for H-4, L-2, and E Dependent Spouses

USCIS has officially issued guidance and updated the I-9 Handbook to provide for automatic extensions of EADs for H-4 and L-2 spouses. In this new policy alert, USCIS is granting these benefits to spouses of E-1 Treaty Traders, E-2 Treaty Investors, and E-3 specialty occupation professionals from Australia in the respective E dependent classification as well.

H-4, L-2, and E dependent spouses will qualify for automatic extension of their valid EAD for 180 days beyond the date of the EAD expiration if the nonimmigrant spouse:

  • Properly files a Form I-765 EAD renewal application to USCIS before the current EAD expires; and
  • Continues to maintain H-4, L-2, or E dependent status beyond the expiration of the existing EAD as evidenced on Form I-94.

The validity of the expired EAD will be extended until the earliest of:

  • 180 days following the EAD expiration;
  • The expiration of the H-4 / L-2 / E dependent nonimmigrant’s I-94 record; or
  • When a final decision is made on the EAD extension application by USCIS.

For I-9 purposes, an H-4, L-2, or E dependent employee may present: a facially expired EAD indicating Category C26, A18, or A17; Form I-797, Notice of Action for Form I-765 with Class requested indicating (c)(26), (a)(18), or (a)(17) and showing that the I-765 EAD renewal application was filed before the EAD expired; and an unexpired I-94, showing valid H-4, L-2, or E dependent nonimmigrant status.

L-2 and E-1/E-2/E-3 Dependent Spouses Will Be Granted Work Authorization Pursuant to Status

USCIS’ new policy guidance provides that both L-2 and E dependent spouses will be employment authorized incident to status, meaning that a separate Form I-765 EAD application will not need to be filed to obtain work authorization, and that the L-2 or E dependent spouse is authorized to work upon being admitted to the United States. USCIS, in cooperation with CBP, will change Form I-94 to indicate the individual is an L-2 spouse so that the I-94 can be used for I-9 purposes. DHS will, within 120 days, take steps to modify Form I-94. However, please note that until USCIS can implement changes to the I-94 to distinguish L-2 and E dependent spouses currently in the U.S. from L-2 and E dependent children, E and L spouses will still need to rely upon an EAD as evidence of employment authorization to present to employers for completion of Form I-9.

Obtaining an Extended I-94

As it is required for H-4, L-2, and E-3 spouses to have a valid I-94 for the automatic extension of the EAD, we are outlining two possible ways that a person applying for an H-4 or L-2 EAD extension can obtain an extended I-94:

  1. File the H-1B or L-1 extension using premium processing and wait for the H-1B or L-1 approval. The H-4 or L-2 spouse then departs the U.S. and obtains a new visa and returns with an extended I-94. Once the spouse returns, he or she will file the EAD extension upon return to the U.S.
  2. File the H-4 or L-2 and EAD extensions with the principal’s H-1B or L-1 extension. After the H-1B or L-1 is approved, the spouse departs the U.S. and obtains a new visa and returns with an extended I-94. The Form I-539, request for extension of status, will be abandoned, but Form I-765 will not and will continue to be processed by USCIS.

Regarding E dependent spouses, anyone entering the U.S. with an E visa is admitted for two years, so he or she may already have an extended I-94 card. If an E dependent spouse has an expiring I-94, he or she can follow one of the above steps to extend their I-94.

Article By Angel Feng, Shannon N. Parker, and John F. Quill of Mintz.

For more immigration law news, read more at the National Law Review.

©1994-2021 Mintz, Levin, Cohn, Ferris, Glovsky and Popeo, P.C. All Rights Reserved.

H.R. 3684: Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act

On November 5, the U.S. House of Representatives approved a $1.2 trillion infrastructure spending bill that will make historic investments in core infrastructure priorities including roads and bridges, rail, transit, ports, airports, the electric grid, and broadband.

The legislation, titled the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (“IIJA”), will have major implications for states and municipalities of all sizes, as well as the entities involved in responding to governments’ needs for hard and cyber infrastructure.

Improvements to roadways, ports and mass transit are the focus of the legislation and the majority of the funding is targeted at these traditional hard infrastructure projects. U.S. Senator Rob Portman (R-OH) has championed the massive infrastructure bill and pushed for its passage.

This weekend, Senator Portman noted the massive impact the IIJA will have on Ohio, highlighting the bill’s bridge investment program which will award competitive grants to certain governmental entities to improve the condition of bridges. “This additional federal funding means we are one step closer to a solution for the Brent Spence Bridge,” Portman said.

The Brent Spence Bridge, which connects Cincinnati, Ohio with Covington, Kentucky has one of the busiest trucking routes in the nation. Questions about its safety and long shutdowns for repair have long concerned area residents as well as the business owners responsible for the more than $400 billion of freight which passes over the bridge every year.

While hard infrastructure priorities like bridge maintenance, port modernization, freight rail, and highway improvements account for a majority of the new spending appropriated by the bill (which totals $550 billion over five years), a sizable portion is dedicated to the expansion of broadband networks and the improvement of cybersecurity.

The new cybersecurity grant program and record-setting investments in broadband development could be game changing for state and local leaders wishing to modernize and protect their communities in these ways.

The U.S. Senate approved the IIJA in August 2020. Friday’s vote means the infrastructure bill will now move to the desk of President Joe Biden, who has indicated a bill signing ceremony will happen soon. Answers to questions about the billions of dollars in new infrastructure grants and programming are below.

Question: How will the money be distributed? 

Answer: The IIJA contains formulaic allocations of funds as well as earmarks and competitive grants. Some categories and sub-categories contain both non-competitive and competitive grants.

  • NON-COMPETITIVE FUNDING ALLOCATION PROCESSES
    • Formulas dictated by the bill are based on criteria like state population, or, potentially for specific items, users (ex: transit funds potentially determined by ridership)
    • Once the money is directed to the states, the local bureaucrats are able to make the important decisions about which projects deserve the funding.
    • States can also decide to allocate some of the funding to the county or city governments within their state
  • EARMARKS AND COMPETITIVE GRANT PROCESSES
    • Earmarks override state plans for how infrastructure funds should be spent. “Earmarks come out of the money that the state was going to get anyway.”
    • Localities must compete for Competitive Grants via an application process. The U.S. Department of Transportation’s Discretionary Grant Process is officially outlined on their website.
    • Generally, the award of competitive grants can be influenced by advocates who confer with decisionmakers in the Executive Branch about the merits of certain proposals.

Question: Which projects will qualify for funding?

Answer: The bill details specific funding streams for the specific projects included in its provisions. Categories of projects included in the $550 billion in new spending are below.

  • Roads, Bridges, & Major Projects: $110B — Funds new, dedicated grant program to replace and repair bridges and increases funding for the major project competitive grant programs. Preserves the 90/10 split of federal highway aid to states.
  • Passenger and Freight Rail: $66B — Provides targeted funding for the Amtrak National Network for new service and dedicated funding to address repair backlogs. Increases funding for freight rail and safety.
  • Safety and Research: $11B — Addresses highway, pedestrian, pipeline, and other safety areas (highway safety accounts for the bulk of this funding).
  • Public Transit: $39.2B — Funds nation’s transit system repair backlog, which includes buses, rail cars, transit stations, track, signals, and power systems. This allocation also includes money to create new bus routes and increase accessibility to public transit for those with physical mobility challenges.
  • Broadband: $65B — Funds grants to states for broadband deployment and other efforts to address access issues in rural areas and low-income communities. Expands eligible private activity bond projects to include broadband infrastructure.
  • Airports: $25B — Increases Airport Improvement grant amounts for runways, gates, & taxiways and authorizes a new Airport Terminal Improvement program.
  • Ports and Waterways: $17.4B — Provides funding for waterway and coastal infrastructure, inland waterway improvements, port infrastructure, and land ports of entry through the Army Corps, DOT, Coast Guard, the GSA, and DHS.
  • Water Infrastructure: $54B — Provides a $15 billion for lead service line replacement and $10 billion to address PFAS in water, in addition to other items.
  • Power and Grid: $65B — Funds grid reliability and resiliency projects and support for a Grid Development Authority; critical minerals and supply chains for clean energy technology; key technologies like carbon capture, hydrogen, direct air capture, and energy efficiency; and energy demonstration projects from the bipartisan Energy Act of 2020.
  • Resiliency: $46B — Funds cybersecurity projects to address critical infrastructure needs, flood mitigation, wildfire, drought, coastal resiliency, waste management, ecosystem restoration, and weatherization.
  • Low-Carbon and Zero-Emission School Buses & Ferries: $7.5B — Funds and authorizes the adoption of low-carbon and zero-emission school buses, including through hydrogen, propane, LNG, compressed natural gas, biofuel, and electric technologies. Provides support for a pilot program for low emission ferries and rural ferry systems.
  • Electric Vehicle Charging: $7.5B — Funds alternative fuel corridors and a national build out of electric vehicle charging infrastructure. The federal funding will have a particular focus on rural and/or disadvantaged communities.
  • Reconnecting Communities: $1B — Provides dedicated funding for planning, design, demolition, and reconstruction of street grids, parks, or other infrastructure (funding is especially targeted at infrastructure which is deteriorating due to age).
  • Addressing Legacy Pollution: $21B — Funds to clean up brownfield and superfund sites, reclaim abandoned mine lands, and plug orphan oil and gas wells, improving public health and creating good-paying jobs.

Article By Katherine M. Caprez of Roetzel & Andress LPA

For more legislative and legal news, read more from the National Law Review.

©2021 Roetzel & Andress

The Confidentially Marketed Public Offering for the Smaller Reporting Company

What is it?

A Confidentially Marketed Public Offering (“CMPO”) is an offering of securities registered on a shelf registration statement on Form S-3 where securities are taken “off the shelf” and sold when favorable market opportunities arise, such as an increase in the issuer’s price and trading volume resulting from positive news pertaining to the issuer.  In a CMPO, an underwriter will confidentially contact a select group of institutional investors to gauge their interest in an offering by the issuer, without divulging the name of the issuer.  If an institutional investor indicates its firm interest in a potential offering and agrees not to trade in the issuer’s securities until either the CMPO is completed or abandoned, the institutional investor will be “brought over the wall” and informed on a confidential basis of the name of the issuer and provided with other offering materials.  The offering materials made available to investors are typically limited to the issuer’s public filings, and do not include material non-public information (“MNPI”).  By avoiding the disclosure of MNPI, the issuer mitigates the risk of being required to publicly disclose the MNPI in the event the offering is terminated.  Once brought over the wall, the issuer, underwriter and institutional investors will negotiate the terms of the offering, including the price (which is usually a discount to the market price) and size of the offering.  Once the offering terms are determined, the issuer turns the confidentially marketed offering into a public offering by filing a prospectus supplement with the Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”) and issuing a press release informing the public of the offering.  Typically, this occurs after the close of markets.  Once public, the underwriters then market the offering broadly to other investors, typically overnight, which is necessary for the offering to be a “public” offering as defined by NASDAQ and the NYSE (as discussed further below).  Customarily, before markets open on the next trading day, the issuer informs the market of the final terms of the offering, including the sale price of the securities to the public, the underwriting discount per share and the proceeds of the offering to the issuer, by issuing a press release and filing a prospectus supplement and Current Report on Form 8-K with the SEC.  The offering then closes and shares are delivered to investors and funds to the issuer, typically two or three trading days later.

What Type of Issuer Can Conduct a CMPO and How Much Can an Issuer Raise?

To be eligible to conduct a CMPO, an issuer needs to have an effective registration statement on Form S-3, and is therefore only available to companies that satisfy the criteria to use such form.  For issuers that have an aggregate market value of voting and non-voting common stock held by non-affiliates of the issuer (“public float”) of $75M or more, the issuer can offer the full amount of securities remaining available for issuance under the registration statement.  Issuers that have a public float of less than $75M will be subject to the “baby shelf rules”.   In a CMPO, issuers subject to the baby shelf rules can offer up to one-third of their public float, less amounts sold under the baby shelf rules in the trailing twelve month period prior to the offering.  To determine the public float, the issuer may look back sixty days from the date of the offering, and select the highest of the last sales prices or the average of the bid and ask prices on the exchange where the issuer’s stock is listed.  For an issuer subject to the baby shelf rules, the amount of capital that the issuer can raise will continually fluctuate based on the issuer’s trading price.

What Exchange Rules Does an Issuer Need to Consider?

The public offering period of a CMPO must be structured to satisfy the applicable NASDAQ or New York Stock Exchange criteria for a “public offering”.  In the event that the criteria are not satisfied, rules requiring advance shareholder approval for private placements where the offering could equal 20% or more of the pre-offering outstanding shares may be implicated.  Moreover, a sale of securities in a transaction other than a public offering at a discount to the market value of the stock to insiders of the issuer is considered a form of equity compensation and requires stockholder approval.  Nasdaq also requires issuers to file a “listing of additional shares” in connection with a CMPO.

Advantages and Disadvantages of CMPOs

There are a number of advantages of a CMPO compared to a traditional public offering, including the following:

  • A CMPO offers an issuer the ability to raise capital on an as needed basis as favorable market conditions arise through a process that is much faster than a traditional public offering.
  • The shares issued to investors in a CMPO are freely tradeable, resulting in more favorable pricing for the issuer.
  • In a CMPO, the issuer can determine the demand for its securities on a confidential basis without market knowledge.  If terms sought by investors are not agreeable to the issuer, the issuer can abandon the CMPO, generally without adverse consequences on its stock price.
  • If properly structured as a public offering, a CMPO will negate the requirement to obtain stockholder approval for the transaction under applicable Nasdaq and NYSE rules.

Disadvantages of conducting a CMPO include:

  • To conduct a CMPO, an issuer must be eligible to use Form S-3 and have an effective registration statement on file with the SEC.
  • Issuers subject to the baby shelf rules may be limited in the amount of capital they can raise in a CMPO.
  • In the event a CMPO is abandoned, investors that have been “brough over the wall” and received MNPI concerning the issuer may insist that the issuer publicly disclose such information to enable such investors to publicly trade the issuer’s securities.

This article is for general information only and may not be relied upon as legal advice.  Any company exploring the possibility of a CMPO should engage directly with legal counsel.

© Copyright 2021 Stubbs Alderton & Markiles, LLP
For more articles on the NASDAQ and NYSE, visit the NLR Financial, Securities & Banking section.

Feuding Business Partners in Private Companies: Considering Arbitration to Resolve Partnership Disputes

It is common for private company co-owners to have disagreements while they operate their business, but they typically work through these disputes themselves.  In those rare instances where conflicts escalate and legal action is required, business partners have two options—filing a lawsuit or participating in an arbitration proceeding.  Arbitration is available, however, only if the parties agreed in advance to arbitrate their disputes.  Therefore, before business partners enter into a buy-sell contact or join other agreements with their co-owners, they will want to consider both the pros and the cons of arbitration.  This post offers input for private company owners and investors to help them decide whether litigation or arbitration provides them with the best forum in which to resolve future disputes with their business partners.

Arbitration is often touted as a faster and less expensive alternative to litigation with the additional benefit of resulting in a final award that is not subject to appeal.  These attributes may not be realized in arbitration, however, and there are other important factors involved, which also merit consideration.  At the outset, it is important to emphasize that arbitrations are created by contract, and parties can therefore custom design the arbitration to be conducted in a manner that meets their specific needs.  The critical factors to be considered are: (i) speed—how important is a quick resolution to the dispute, (ii) confidentiality—how desirable is privacy in resolving the claims, (iii) scope—how broad are the claims to be resolved, (iv) expense—how important is it to limit costs, and (v) finality—is securing a final result more desirable than preserving the right to appeal an adverse decision.

Speed—Prompt Resolution of Dispute

Arbitrations generally resolve claims more promptly than litigation, but that is not always the case as arbitration proceedings can drag on if the arbitration is not subject to any restriction on when the final hearing must take place.  One way to ensure that an arbitration will promptly resolve the dispute, however, is to require an end date in the arbitration agreement.  Specifically, the parties can state in their arbitration provision that the final arbitration hearing must take place within a set period of time, perhaps 60 or 90 days of the date the arbitration panel holds its first scheduling conference.  The arbitrators will then set a date for the final hearing that meets this contractual requirement.  Similarly, in the arbitration provision, the parties can also specify the length for the hearing (no more than 2-3 days), and they can also impose limits on the extent of discovery, including by restricting the number of depositions than can be taken.

If securing a prompt resolution of a dispute with a business partner is important, this result can be assured by requiring that all claims are arbitrated, particularly if the parties specify in the arbitration provision that the final hearing must take place on a fast track basis.

Confidentiality—Arbitration Conducted Privately

Litigation takes place in a public forum and, as a result, all pleadings the parties file, and with only rare exceptions, all testimony and other evidence presented at any hearings and at trial will be available to the public.  Therefore if a business partner wants to avoid having future partnership disputes subject to public scrutiny, arbitration provides this protection. But looking at this from another perspective, a minority investor may want to decline to arbitrate future claims against the majority owner if the owner is sensitive to adverse publicity.  The threat of claims being litigated in a public lawsuit may provide the investor with leverage in the negotiation and settlement of any future claims the investor has against the majority owner.

Scope of Dispute—How Much Discovery Required

Determining the scope of a future dispute with a business partner is difficult to do at the time that business partners enter into their contract when any future claims are unknown.  The downside arises in the arbitration context, because one of the parties may desire broad discovery of the type that is permitted in litigation, which may be necessary to defend against certain types of contentions, such as claims for fraud, personal injury and other types of business torts.  In an arbitration proceeding, discovery is typically more restricted, and it may further be limited by the arbitration provision, which caps the number of depositions and narrows the scope of document discovery.  Under these circumstances, the defending party (the respondent) may be hamstrung by these discovery limitations in defending against the claimant’s allegations in arbitration.

To avoid prejudice to the respondent from restrictions on discovery in arbitration, the parties may decide to agree that not all claims between them would be subject to arbitration.  For example, the parties could agree that all claims related in any way to the value and purchase of a departing partner’s interest in the business would be subject to arbitration, but that other claims of a personal nature (e.g., claims for discrimination, wrongful termination) would be litigated in court rather than arbitrated.  This splitting of claims in this manner may not be practical, but is something to be discussed by the parties when they enter into their agreement at the outset.

Expense of Dispute Resolution

As discussed above, business partners can limit the expense of resolving future claims between them by requiring a fast track arbitration hearing and also by limiting the scope and the extent of allowed discovery.  For example, if the parties require a final arbitration hearing to take place in 90 days after the initial scheduling conference, limit the hearing to two days and permit no more than three fact witness depositions per side.  They will have likely achieved a significant reduction of the cost of resolving their dispute.

The issue of cost requires additional analysis, however, because if the parties are not of equal bargaining power, the partner with more capital may not agree that arbitration is the best forum to resolve disputes with a less solvent partner.  The wealthier partner may believe that he or she would prevail over the less well-capitalized partner in a “war of attrition.” This factor may be so significant that it causes the wealthier partner to reject the arbitration of future disputes in favor of resolving of all future claims by or against the other partner through litigation.

Finality of Arbitration Awards

There is no right of an appeal in arbitration and the grounds for attacking an arbitration award in a court proceeding after the arbitration concludes are narrow and rarely successful.  This finality element may thus be an important factor in selecting arbitration as the forum for resolving partnership disputes with the goal of ending the dispute without having it linger on.

There is another concern here, however, that also bears considering.   The conventional wisdom among trial lawyers is that arbitrators are prone to “split the baby” by not providing a strict construction of the written contract or the controlling statute at issue.  Instead, the belief is that arbitrators are inclined to include something for both sides in the final award in an attempt to be as fair as possible, which results in mixed bag outcome.   That has not been my personal experience, but it is true that if the arbitration award is not fully consistent with the contract or a governing statute, there is no right to appeal the decision.  The bottom line is that, at the end of the arbitration, the parties will have to live with the result, and there is no available path to challenge an unfavorable/undesired outcome.

Conclusion

The takeaway is that arbitration is not a panacea.  It can be structured to take place faster and more cost-effectively than a lawsuit, and it will also be held in private and not be subject to public scrutiny.  But, business partners also need to consider other factors in arbitration, such as specific limits on discovery that may be problematic and the finality of the arbitrators’ decision, which may not be viewed as fully consistent with the partners’ contract or in strict accordance with the applicable law.   To the extent that business partners do opt for arbitration, they should craft the arbitration provision to make sure its terms closely align with their business goals.

© 2020 Winstead PC.

ARTICLE BY Ladd Hirsch at Winstead.
For more on business conflict resolution, see the National Law Review Corporate & Business Organizations law section.

Renewed Shutdowns/Restrictions Present Interesting Issues Regarding COVID-19 Business Interruption Claims

In recent weeks we have published multiple pieces on issues related to the calculation of damages under business interruption policies for losses associated with COVID-19 shutdowns/restrictions.  Unlike more conventional business interruption claims, such as losses associated with a hurricane, COVID-19 claims are likely to be more complicated regarding the end date for loss calculations, especially in instances where the policyholder was permitted to resume operations in a limited capacity, such as restaurants that initially were ordered closed but then were allowed to transition to a take-out/delivery model, outdoor seating only, or to operate at restricted capacities.

As many jurisdictions now face a resurgence in COVID-19 cases, another complicating issue is likely to arise.  In these jurisdictions that previously imposed restrictions on operations but lifted such restrictions, many policyholders have already submitted COVID-19-related business interruption claims to their insurance carriers.  Having thought that they had weathered the storm and were on the path to recovery, they now face the potential of new shutdowns/restrictions.

If renewed shutdowns/restrictions are imposed, a question is likely to arise as to whether these policyholders have one claim applicable to both sets of shutdowns/restrictions or two separate claims.  Does the policyholder need to provide additional notice related to the second set of shutdowns/restrictions?  Is it more beneficial for the policyholder to have one or multiple coverage triggering events (i.e., occurrences)?  What is the impact on available limits or deductibles/retentions?

These are just a few of the insurance issues potentially presented by the prospect of renewed shutdowns/restrictions.  Policyholders should review the terms of their policies carefully to understand their rights and their best path forward.

© 2020 Gilbert LLP

For more on business interruption, see the National Law Review Insurance, Reinsurance & Surety law section.

One-Two Punch: Businesses Must Fight the Virus and Possible Liability Claims

After several weeks in lockdown and thousands of business closures in an attempt to control the spread of the novel coronavirus, businesses are finally reopening their doors. Given the high transmission of COVID-19, businesses should consider their risks of legal liability to visitors on their property – customers, employees and others – in the event of COVID-19 exposure at their premises.  But the fear of civil liability remains a hindering problem. These claims will most commonly be pursued under the legal theory of negligence and plaintiffs may seeking financial compensation for their injuries and medical treatment related to COVID-19. Plaintiff’s lawyers in these cases will focus on the operations and procedures in place during the reopening. Some businesses are taking extraordinary measures to protect customers, while others are doing the bare minimum. Businesses need to know how to be in compliance with best safety practices to prevent and defend against claims related to an alleged failure to protect customers from COVID-19 exposures.

Immunity for Businesses for COVID-19 Exposure?

A large number of states, including Massachusetts, have enacted laws to shield health care workers, health care facilities and volunteer organizations treating COVID-19 patients from negligence claims subject to certain exceptions. However, the immunity does not extend to cover damages caused by gross negligence or recklessness. It is important to note that these states have not provided similar immunity to other businesses, nor have they limited liability in cases involving gross negligence for COVID-19 related claims. There have been discussions of additional legislation to protect businesses in these cases, but this has yet to happen.

Tort Claims and Premises Liability Law in Massachusetts

Personal injury claims typically stem from negligent acts, where a party had a duty of care, failed to reasonably care for that individual, and that failure to care caused the individual harm or injury. A ”duty of care” exists when its reasonably foreseeable that some act or omission would cause some type of knowable harm, and thus taking reasonable action to ensure safety. The breach of that duty is the act or omission that causes the harm. The breach of duty must cause some damages. Damages are monetary compensation for the victim’s injuries and losses if liability is found.

Premises liability law, a subset of personal injury law, similarly holds that property owners owe a duty of reasonable care to visitors on their premises in Massachusetts, so as to not create or allow unsafe or hazardous conditions to exist on their premises that could cause injury or harm to patrons and guests. If a hazardous condition exists that could reasonably cause harm, and the property owner fails to remove it or warn of it, this could ultimately result in liability.

The duty of care is stricter for business owners, as they invite persons onto their property to purchase goods or services. The level of care owed depends upon the type of visitor on the property. Massachusetts has two types of lawfully present visitors: 1) licensees- individuals presenting financial gain for the property owner like patrons, diners, shoppers; and 2) invitees- those who are not providing any financial gain to the property owner like guests and friends at a social gathering. The property owner owes its visitors a duty of care, that is to keep the property reasonably safe. In this context, the property owner is well aware of the risks associated with COVID-19, the nature of the disease and how it is transmitted. If it did not take reasonable steps to prevent the transmission of the virus to its licensees and invitees, and the claimant can prove the business’ failure to exercise reasonable care was a “substantial contributing factor” in causing the claimant’s injury, they may be entitled to damages, which can include among other things, medical expenses, economic damages, and even emotional distress.

Breach of Duty

There is an abundance of guidance available to businesses on the virus, transmission, preventative measures. Whether a business “breached” their duty of care will focus on what the business did to determine if taking action (or taking no action) was reasonable or not, given the state of knowledge on the virus. Thus, claimants would need to point to what steps the businesses took to protect its licensees and invitees, and whether there were additional procedures that could have been implemented to prevent the transmission, and whether those additional actions were reasonable in light of what was known about the virus. Intentional ignorance is not a defense – property owners have a duty to investigate known or potential hazards, including COVID-19.

Causation

Claimants in tort claims have the burden of proving causation. This usually means proving that the breach of duty was a “substantial contributing factor” in causing the claimant’s injury. In COVID-19 cases, the claimant will ultimately need to prove that the virus was contracted at that business as opposed to another source, which may be extremely difficult to do. Asymptomatic spread of COVID-19 is one of many challenges to proving the initial source of exposure. While some claimants will rely on contact tracing, that alone does not rule out alternative sources of COVID-19 exposure – any other place the person visited (markets, homes, their workplace), and exposure to family members and friends.

Notably, a large number of states are enacting legislation applicable to workers compensation claims related to COVID-19. This legislation establishes a rebuttable presumption that an employee who tests positive for COVID-19 contracted it in the course of employment, although some are limited to essential workers. A “rebuttable presumption” means that the burden of disproving causation is thrust upon the employer. While there are no similar rebuttable presumptions for personal injury and premise liability claimants at this time, it is an open question as to whether these presumptions can be used affirmatively in tort lawsuits, particularly in a situation where a worker brings COVID-19 into the home and sickens a family member or housemate.

Mitigating Liability

If businesses can show that safety protocols were followed, this evidence can be used to defend these types of claims. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has set guidelines that should be followed as best practices to avoid COVID-19 liability claims. There is an abundance of state and local guidance on social distancing, use of masks and other measures to prevent the spread of the virus. With the vast amount of information available to the public on the risks of the virus and preventative measures, claimants will argue that businesses have enough information to safely operate Crafty plaintiff’s lawyers will likely seek out and find guidance that specifically supports their clients case. Business owners are advised to do the same for their respective industries, whether it be restaurants, offices or youth sports leagues.

Defenses to Consider in Defending COVID 19 Liability Claims

Statute of Limitations

The statute of limitations for in Massachusetts governing personal injury and premises liability cases places a time limit of three years within the date of the incident for filing the lawsuit. Lawsuits filed after the statute of limitations period may be dismissed as “time-barred.” Other states have similar statutes, although the specific timeframe may vary.

Modified Comparative Negligence Law

Some states, including Massachusetts, use a modified comparative negligence rule in personal injury cases, allowing plaintiffs to recover only if the defendant’s share of the blame was equal to or greater than their own. There are only a few exceptions allowing plaintiffs to recover if they were more than 51% at fault. Another important factor of this rule to consider is that if plaintiffs are found to be at fault, their damages are reduced by their allocated share of the blame. Did the visitor where a mask? Did they stay 6 feet apart from other individuals? Did they wash their hands and sanitize frequently? Were they placing their hands on their mouth and nose? These facts and circumstances are critical factors to consider when shifting the blame to the claimant.

Assumption of Risk Abolished in Massachusetts

Some jurisdictions allow a defendant in a personal injury action to raise an affirmative defense of assumption of risk, but that is abolished in Massachusetts as a defense in personal injury cases. In jurisdictions where this defense is allowed, instead of denying the allegations, defendants can assert that a plaintiff was aware of the risk when engaging in the activity or conduct, fully had knowledge of the consequences and willingly disregarded the risks or assumed the risks. Therefore, the defendant cannot be at fault for negligence and this serves as a complete bar to recovery.

Liability Waivers

Did a plaintiff sign a written liability waiver acknowledging and accepting risks? Enforceability of liability waivers as well as the exceptions to the enforceability of releases vary from state to state. While this only shows licensees and invitees were made aware of the risk, using such waivers in these COVID 19 claims is not a slam dunk defense.

Conclusion

We encourage businesses to consider these liability risks when resuming operations and to follow comprehensive procedures and CDC guidelines to mitigate the risks and protect licensees and invitees from the spread of the virus at these establishments. Our office can help businesses develop a plan specific to their business to mitigate the risks of liability from emerging claims related to COVID 19 and provide guidance and advocacy for defending such claims.

©2020 CMBG3 Law, LLC. All rights reserved.

ARTICLE BY Seta Accaoui at CMBG3 Law.
For more on business COVID-19 liability, see the National Law Review Coronavirus News section.