Category: Financial Services Law

Preparing For the Return of Dealer Distress

Over the last five years, auto and equipment dealers experienced a period of low inventory levels with high margins on the limited inventory they had for sale and lease. Used automotive and equipment wholesale and retail prices surged. At the same time, merger and acquisition activity drove dealer valuations to record highs especially in the automotive segment.

Dealer merger and acquisition activity has started to cool even though valuations and activity remain elevated above pre-pandemic levels1. New automotive inventory levels have risen during 2024 to the point that Ford’s CFO, John Lawler, expressed worry regarding rising new car inventory levels in June2. Used automotive and equipment wholesale prices have declined from their pandemic era highs as well.

Record profits, low inventory levels, and strong merger and acquisition activity led to low delinquency and default levels in the dealer lending space, but current trends indicate those days may be coming to an end. For floor plan lenders, they should be thinking about dealer distress happening again. While times are still good, there are some steps lenders can take to prepare for distress down the road.

Review Your Documents and Security Interests

It is always easier to fix documentation and security interest deficiencies when times are good. Lenders should be checking to make sure their loan documents are correct and most importantly, their security interest position reflects their expectations. One area of particular concern is making sure no other parties have filed security interests against the dealer including merchant cash advance, factoring and other “short term” funding sources that might not show up as debt on financial statements. Even other lenders providing longer term debt financing secured by other assets like real estate may be taking a security interest in your inventory as well.

Insurance

As part of your documentation review, you should verify the dealer’s insurance meets the requirements of your loan documents, lists your interest properly, and is adequate for the dealer’s exposure. Insurance coverage tied to inventory levels can become insufficient if inventory levels rise faster than the coverage limits increase. Also ensuring the insurance covers all collateral locations is a requirement that might slip through the cracks especially if collateral locations change frequently.

Where is Your Collateral?

One benefit of low inventory levels was that dealers stopped storing inventory at satellite lots. The practice of old is starting to return as inventory levels build. Lenders want to make sure they know of these locations (they should if they are on top of the audits) and obtain landlord waivers if necessary to access the inventory upon a default.

Keeping Up on Audits

Anyone who knows the floor plan business knows the importance of audits. Low inventory levels and well performing dealers made audits easy. With increasing inventory levels, audit complexity is returning to pre-pandemic norms. Audit issues are often one of the first signs of dealer distress. A prominent example of a dealer issue recently being unearthed through audits involves a boat dealer who allegedly sold boats, but stored them for the customers and alleged the boats were still for sale3.

Financial Reporting and Covenants

Financial reporting deficiencies and financial covenant violations are also warning signs of potential distress on the horizon. Dealers rarely go bad overnight. Financial reporting and covenants going downhill are an obvious warning sign.

Taxes

Not just limited to dealers, but tax delinquencies are always a big red flag. Confirming the payment of taxes and the existence of no tax liens should be part of reviewing any dealer relationship especially one showing other signs of distress.

Used Inventory Levels and Advance Rates

During the pandemic when used vehicle and equipment prices shot through the roof, lenders became permissive of advancing beyond their standard advance rates. As used inventory values decline for vehicles4 and agricultural equipment5, dealers can be underwater on used inventory.

Manufacturer Specific Issues

Not all dealers are equal and the same is true for manufacturers. Monthly inventory level data from Cox Automotive6 shows inventory levels being substantially higher among some vehicle brands compared to others. Keeping an eye on your dealer and the average inventory levels of the brands they carry should be on your radar.

Explaining What You Do

As someone who spent a decade as lead counsel at two different financial institutions being lead counsel for floor plan businesses, I spent a lot of time explaining to others outside the floor plan businesses the nuances of floor plan lending. If things start going downhill with a dealer, be prepared for the inevitable basic questions from those not used to the dealer business.

Conclusion – Hope for the Best, Prepare For The Worst

One of the best credit people I ever worked with described a dealer failure as like a war. When a dealer failure occurs, most likely through a selling inventory out of trust, you don’t have time to learn what to do. You got to know what to do. You must have someone ready to take command and quarterback the response. You got to know who will help you accomplish your ends. If you don’t act quickly, your inventory will be gone and your losses can be in the millions within days.

1 “Dealership Buy-Sell Activity and Blue Sky Values are declining, but are elevated well above pre-pandemic levels”, The Haig Report, August 29, 2024 (2024-Q2-Haig-Report-Press-Release-FINAL.pdf (haigpartners.com))
2 “Ford CFO says growing dealer inventory ‘worries me’”, Breana Noble, The Detroit News, June 11, 2024 (Ford CFO John Lawler says growing dealer inventory ‘worries me’ (detroitnews.com))
3 “Lender Alleges Dealer Diverted Millions in Sales Proceeds”, Kim Kavin, Soundings Trade Only, April 16, 2024 (https://www.tradeonlytoday.com/manufacturers/lender-alleges-dealer-diverted-millions-in-sales-proceeds)
4 “Wholesale Used-Vehicle Prices Decrease in First Half of September”, Cox Automotive, September 17, 2024 (Wholesale Used-Vehicle Prices Decrease in First Half of September – Cox Automotive Inc. (coxautoinc.com))
5 “Lower Used Equipment Prices Are Another Sign of the Challenges in the Ag Sector”, Jim Wiesenmeyer, Farm Journal, August 14, 2024 (Lower Used Equipment Prices Are Another Sign of the Challenges in the Ag Sector | AgWeb).
6 “New-Vehicle Inventory Stabilizes as Sales Incentives Increase and Model Year 2025 Vehicles Arrive”, Cox Automotive, September 19, 2024 (New-Vehicle Inventory Stabilizes as Sales Incentives Increase and Model Year 2025 Vehicles Arrive – Cox Automotive Inc. (coxautoinc.com))

Copyright © 2024 Womble Bond Dickinson (US) LLP All Rights Reserved.
For more on Dealers, visit the NLR Utilities Transport section

The Corporate Transparency Act Requires Reporting of Beneficial Owners

The Corporate Transparency Act (the “CTA”) became effective on January 1, 2024, requiring many corporations, limited liability companies, limited partnerships, and other entities to register with and report certain information to the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (“FinCEN”) of the U.S. Department of Treasury (“Treasury”). The CTA marks a substantial increase in the reporting obligations for many U.S. companies, as well as for non-U.S. companies doing business in the United States.

IN SHORT:
Most corporate entities are now required to file a beneficial ownership information report (“BOI Report”) with FinCEN disclosing certain information about the entity and those persons who are “beneficial owners” or who have “substantial control.” BOI Reports for companies owned by trusts and estates may require significant analysis to determine beneficial ownership and substantial control.

The CTA imposes potential penalties on entities that fail to file BOI Reports with FinCEN by the prescribed deadline. For entities formed prior to January 1, 2024, a BOI Report must be filed by January 1, 2025. For entities formed on or after January 1, 2024, but prior to January 1, 2025, a BOI Report must be filed within 90 days of the entity’s formation. For entities formed on or after January 1, 2025, a BOI Report must be filed within 30 days of the entity’s formation.

Entities formed after January 1, 2024, must also report information regarding “company applicants” to FinCEN. If certain information within a BOI Report changes, entities are required to file a supplemental BOI Report within 30 days of such change.

While Winstead’s Wealth Preservation Practice Group will not be directly filing BOI Reports with FinCEN, our attorneys and staff will be available this year, by appointment, to answer questions regarding reporting requirements if scheduled by Friday, November 22, 2024. We strongly recommend that company owners begin analyzing what reporting obligations they may have under the CTA and schedule appointments with their professional advisors now to ensure availability.

BACKGROUND:
Congress passed the CTA in an effort to combat money laundering, fraud, and other illicit activities accomplished through anonymous shell companies. To achieve this objective, most entities operating in the United States will now be required to file BOI Reports with FinCEN.

The CTA applies to U.S. companies and non-U.S. companies registered to operate in the United States that fall within the definition of a “reporting company.” There are certain exceptions specifically enumerated in the CTA, which generally cover entities that are already subject to anti-money laundering requirements, entities registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission or other federal regulatory bodies, and entities that pose a low risk of the illicit activities targeted by the CTA.

REPORTING OBLIGATIONS:
Entity Information. Each reporting company is required to provide FinCEN with the following information:

  1. the legal name of the reporting company;
  2. the mailing address of the reporting company;
  3. the state of formation (or foreign country in which the entity was formed, if applicable) of the reporting company; and
  4. the employer identification number of the reporting company.

Beneficial Owner and Applicant Information. Absent an exemption, each reporting company is also required to provide FinCEN with the following information regarding each beneficial owner and each company applicant:

  1. full legal name;
  2. date of birth;
  3. current residential or business address; and
  4. unique identifying number from a U.S. passport or U.S. state identification (e.g., state-issued driver’s license), a foreign passport, or a FinCEN identifier (i.e., the unique number issued by FinCEN to an individual).

DEFINITIONS:
Reporting Company. A “reporting company” is defined as any corporation, limited liability company, or any other entity created by the filing of a document with a secretary of state or any similar office under the law of a State. Certain entities are exempt from these filing requirements, including, but not limited to:

  1. financial institutions and regulated investment entities;
  2. utility companies;
  3. entities that are described in Section 501(c) of the Internal Revenue Code;
  4. inactive, non-foreign owned entities with no assets; and
  5. sizeable operating companies that employ more than 20 full-time employees in the United States that have filed a United States federal income tax return in the previous year demonstrating more than $5,000,000 in gross receipts or sales.

A reporting company that is not exempt must register with and report all required information to FinCEN by the applicable deadline.

Beneficial Owner. A “beneficial owner” is defined as any individual who, directly or indirectly, (i) exercises substantial control over such reporting company or (ii) owns or controls at least 25% of the ownership interests of such reporting company.

Substantial Control. An individual exercises “substantial control” over a reporting company if the individual (i) serves as a senior officer of the reporting company, (ii) has authority over the appointment or removal of any senior officer or a majority of the board of directors (or the similar body governing such reporting company), or (iii) directs, determines, or has substantial influence over important decisions made by the reporting company, including by reason of such individual’s representation on the board (or other governing body of the reporting company) or control of a majority of the reporting company’s voting power.

Company Applicant. A “company applicant” is any individual who (i) files an application to form the reporting company under U.S. law or (ii) registers or files an application to register the reporting company under the laws of a foreign country to do business in the United States by filing a document with the secretary of state or similar office under U.S. law.

DEADLINES:
Entities Formed Before January 1, 2024. A reporting company that was formed prior to the effective date of the CTA (January 1, 2024) is required to register with FinCEN and file its initial BOI Report by January 1, 2025.

Entities Formed After January 1, 2024, but Before January 1, 2025. A reporting company that was formed after the effective date of the CTA (January 1, 2024), but before January 1, 2025, must register with FinCEN and file its initial BOI Report within 90 calendar days of formation.
Entities Formed After January 1, 2025. A reporting company formed after January 1, 2025, will be required to register with FinCEN and file its initial BOI Report within 30 calendar days of formation.

Supplemental BOI Reports. If any information included in a BOI Report changes, a reporting company must file a supplemental report with FinCEN within 30 days of such change. This includes minor changes, such as an address change or an updated driver’s license for a beneficial owner or someone who has substantial control over the reporting company.

PENALTIES FOR NON-COMPLIANCE:
The CTA and Treasury regulations impose potential civil and criminal liability on reporting companies and company applicants that fail to comply with the CTA’s reporting requirements. Civil penalties for reporting violations include a monetary fine of up to $500 per day that the violation continues unresolved, adjusted for inflation. Criminal penalties include a fine of up to $10,000 and/or two years in prison.

REPORTING REQUIREMENTS RELATED TO TRUSTS AND ESTATES:
When a trust or estate owns at least 25% of a reporting company or exercises substantial control over the reporting company, the BOI Report must generally include (i) the fiduciaries of the trust or estate (i.e., the trustee or executor), (ii) certain individual beneficiaries, and (iii) the settlor or creator of the trust. If the trust agreement gives other individuals certain rights and powers, however, such as a distribution advisor, trust protector, or trust committee member, the reporting company may also be required to disclose such individuals’ information in the BOI Report. Similarly, if a corporate trustee or executor is serving, the BOI Report must contain the names and information of the employees who actually administer the trust or estate on behalf of the corporation. Due to these nuances, it is often necessary to engage in additional analysis when a trust or estate is a beneficial owner of or has substantial control over a reporting company.

CONCLUDING REMARKS:
The CTA and its BOI Report filing requirement are still relatively new, and although FinCEN continues to publish additional guidance, many open questions remain. All companies formed or operating in the United States should carefully review whether they are required to file an initial BOI Report in accordance with the CTA, and take further steps to identify all individuals who must be included in such BOI Report.

© 2024 Winstead PC.
For more news on Corporate Transparency Act Reporting Requirements, visit the NLR Financial Institutions Banking section.

End of Summer Pool Party: CFTC Approves Final Rule Amending 4.7 Regulatory Relief for CPOs and CTAs

On 12 September 2024, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) published a Final Rule impacting registered commodity pool operators (CPOs) and commodity trading advisors (CTAs) relying on the regulatory relief provided under CFTC Regulation 4.7. “Registration light,” as Regulation 4.7 is sometimes known, provides reduced disclosure, reporting and recordkeeping obligations for CPOs and CTAs that limit sales activities to “qualified eligible persons” (QEPs).

The Final Rule amends Regulation 4.7 by:

  • Updating the QEP definition by increasing the financial thresholds in the “Portfolio Requirement” to account for inflation; and
  • Codifying certain CFTC no-action letters allowing CPOs of Funds of Funds to opt to deliver monthly account statements within 45 days of month-end.

For most asset managers, however, the most significant update is that the CFTC declined to adopt the proposed minimum disclosure requirements. Under existing Regulation 4.7, CPOs and CTAs are exempt from certain disclosure requirements when offering pools solely to QEPs. Without those exemptions, dually-registered managers would be burdened with duplicate or conflicting disclosure requirements under the Securities and Exchange Commission’s (SEC) rules. The Proposed Rule would have rescinded or narrowed certain of these exemptions. Commenters almost unanimously opposed the disclosure-related amendments, and the CFTC ultimately decided to take additional time to consider the concerns and potential alternatives.

The Final Rule doubled the Portfolio Requirement for the Securities Portfolio Test and the Initial Margin and Premium test to US$4,000,000 and US$400,000, respectively. Despite the increased suitability standards for QEPs, the Final Rule will not impact most private funds relying on Rule 506 of Regulation D, as those amounts are still less than the “Qualified Purchaser” threshold under the SEC’s rules.

Copyright 2024 K & L Gates
For more news on CFTC Final Rule, visit the NLR Antitrust Trade Regulation section.

Selection of Gov. Walz as VP Candidate Implicates SEC Pay-To-Play Rule

Kamala Harris’ selection of Tim Walz as running mate for her presidential campaign has implications under the Securities and Exchange Commission’s (SEC) Rule 206(4)-5 under the Investment Advisers Act (SEC Pay-to-Play Rule). In particular, certain political contributions to vice presidential candidate Tim Walz, who serves as Chair of the Minnesota State Board of Investment (SBI), and other actions by investment advisers and certain of their personnel could trigger a two-year “time-out” that would prevent an investment adviser from collecting fees from any of the statewide retirement systems or other investment programs or state cash accounts managed by the SBI. As a result, all investment advisers should consider reviewing their existing policies and procedures relating to pay-to-play and political contributions, and they should remind employees of these policies in connection with the 2024 election cycle.

A few key takeaways in this regard

  • The SEC Pay-to-Play Rule prohibits investment advisers, including exempt advisers and exempt reporting advisers,1 from receiving compensation for providing advisory services to a government entity client for two years after the investment adviser or certain personnel, including executive officers and employees soliciting government entities,2 has made a contribution to an “official”3 of the government entity.
    • Governor Walz is an “official” of the SBI under the SEC Pay-to-Play Rule because he serves on the board of the SBI.
    • An investment adviser was recently fined by the SEC for violations of the SEC Pay-to-Play Rule following a contribution by a covered associate to a candidate who served as a member of the SBI.4
  • As a result of Governor Walz’s role with regard to the SBI, any contributions by a covered adviser (or any PAC controlled by the adviser) or any contributions by its covered associates above the de minimis amount of US$3505 to the Harris/Walz campaign will trigger a two-year “time-out.” This may have implications for investment advisers that are not currently seeking to do business with the SBI but may in the future, as the “time out” period applies for the entirety of the two-year period, even if Governor Walz ceases to be an “official” of the SBI after the election.
  • Contributions by family members of covered associates and contributions to super PACs or multicandidate PACs (so long as contributions are not earmarked for the benefit of the Harris/Walz campaign) generally are not restricted under the SEC Pay-to-Play Rule, if not done in a manner designed to circumvent the rule.
  • In addition to the SEC Pay-to-Play Rule, financial services firms should be mindful of other restrictions under Municipal Securities Rule Making Board Rule G-37, Commodity Futures Trading Commission Regulation 23.451, Financial Industry Regulatory Authority Rule 2030, and SEC Rule 15Fh-6.
  • Similar concerns were implicated when then-Governor Mike Pence of Indiana was the Republican vice presidential nominee in 20166; however, former President Donald Trump and current U.S. Senator J.D. Vance (R-OH) are not “officials” for purposes of the SEC Pay-to-Play Rule or other applicable pay-to-play rules, and contributions to the Trump/Vance campaign will not be restricted under these rules.

In addition to the SEC Pay-to-Play Rule and other federal pay-to-play rules noted above, many states and localities have also adopted pay-to-play rules that are applicable to persons who contract with their governmental agencies. Campaign contributions to other candidates may trigger disclosure obligations or certain restrictions under such rules. As political contributions can lead to unintended violations of the SEC Pay-to-Play Rule or other applicable pay-to-play rules, advisers should assess whether any of these rules present a business risk in the 2024 election cycle and take appropriate steps to protect themselves.

From a compliance standpoint, some investment advisers have implemented pre-clearance procedures for all employees, which can permit an investment adviser’s compliance team to confirm that political contributions by employees will not lead to unintended consequences. Compliance teams may also consider periodic checks of publicly available campaign contribution data to confirm contributions by employees are being disclosed pursuant to applicable internal policies.

Should you have any questions regarding the content of this alert, please do not hesitate to contact one of the authors or our other lawyers.

Footnotes

1 The rule applies to “covered advisers,” a term that includes investment advisers registered or required to be registered with the SEC, “foreign private advisers” not registered in reliance on Section 203(b)(3) of the Investment Advisers Act, and “exempt reporting advisers.”

2 The rule applies to “covered associates,” which are defined for this purpose as: (i) any general partner, managing member, executive officer, or other individual with a similar status or function; (ii) any employee who solicits a government entity for the investment adviser and any person who supervises, directly or indirectly, such employee; and (iii) any political action committee (PAC) controlled by the investment adviser or by any person described in parts (i) or (ii).

3 An “official” means any individual (including any election committee of the individual) who was, at the time of a contribution, a candidate (whether or not successful) for elective office or holds the office of a government entity, if the office (i) is directly or indirectly responsible for, or can influence the outcome of, the hiring of an investment adviser by a government entity; or (ii) has authority to appoint any person who is directly or indirectly responsible for, or can influence the outcome of, the hiring of an investment adviser by a government entity.

4 Wayzata Investment Partners LLC, Investment Advisers Act Release No. 6590 (Apr. 15, 2024).

5 Under the SEC Pay-to-Play Rule, covered associates (but not covered advisers) are permitted to make a de minimis contribution up to a US$350 amount in an election in which they are able to vote without triggering the two-year “time-out.”

6 Clifford J. Alexander, Ruth E. Delaney & Sonia R. Gioseffi, Impact of Pay-to-Play Rules in the 2016 Election Cycle, K&L GATES (Aug. 18, 2016), https://www.klgates.com/Impact-of-Pay-to-Play-Rules-in-the-2016-Election-Cycle-08-18-2016.

Copyright 2024 K & L Gates
by: Ruth E. Delaney, Richard F. Kerr of K&L Gates
For more news on the SEC Pay-to-Play Rule, visit the NLR Securities SEC section.

Filing Requirements Under the Corporate Transparency Act: Stealth Beneficial Owners

The Corporate Transparency Act (“CTA”) requires most entities to file with the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (“FinCEN,” a Bureau of the U.S. Department of the Treasury) Beneficial Ownership Information (“BOI”) about the individual persons who own and/or control the entities, unless an entity is exempt under the CTA from the filing requirement. There are civil and criminal penalties for failing to comply with this requirement.

A key issue: WHO are the Beneficial Owners?

FinCEN has issued a series of Frequently Asked Questions along with responses providing guidance on the issue of who the beneficial owners are.

Question A-1, issued on March 24, 2023, states that “[BOI] refers to identifying information about the individuals who directly or indirectly own or control a company.”

Question A-2, issued on Sept. 18, 2023: Why do companies have to report beneficial ownership information to the U.S Department of the Treasury? defines the CTA as “…part of the U.S. government’s efforts to make it harder for bad actors to hide or benefit from their ill-gotten gains through shell companies or other opaque ownership structures.”

Question D-1, updated April 18, 2024: Who is a beneficial owner of a reporting company? states that “A beneficial owner is an individual who either directly or indirectly (i) exercises substantial control over a reporting company” and, in referring to Question D-2 (What is substantial control?), “owns or controls at least 25 percent of a reporting company’s ownership interests.”

Question D-1 goes on to note that beneficial owners must be individuals, i.e., natural persons. This guidance is extended by Question D-2 on Substantial Control, where control includes the power of an individual who is an “important decision-maker.” Question D-3 (What are important decisions?) identifies “important decisions” with a pictorial chart of subject matters that FinCEN considers important, such as the type of business, the design of necessary financings, and the structure of the entity. Question D-4 explores ownership interests (again with a pictorial) including equity interests, profit interests, convertible securities, options, or “any other instrument, contract, arrangement, understanding, relationship, or mechanism used to establish ownership.”

Who, in FinCEN’s view, has “substantial control”?

Question D-2 lists four categories of those who have substantial control:

  1. A senior officer, including both executive officers and anyone “who performs a similar function;”
  2. An individual with “authority to appoint or remove certain officers or directors;”
  3. An individual who is an important decision-maker; or
  4. An individual with “any other form of substantial control.”

“Silent partners” and/or other undisclosed principals, including some who may be using the reporting company for nefarious purposes, might be discussed here, but that is not the intended subject of this writing. Rather, this piece is intended to warn businesspersons and their advisers of potential “stealth beneficial owners” – those whose status as beneficial owners is not immediately obvious.

First, consider the typical limited liability company Operating Agreement for an LLC with enough members and distribution of ownership interests so that no member owns over 25% of the LLC’s equity. If the LLC is manager-managed, then the manager(s) is/are Beneficial Owners, but the other members are not. But what if the Operating Agreement requires a majority or super-majority vote to approve certain transactions? Assuming that those transactions are “important” (as discussed in Question D-3), then possessing a potential veto power makes EACH member a beneficial owner. Such contractual limitations on executive power necessarily raise the issue of “beneficial ownership” in corporations, in limited liability companies, and even in limited partnerships where the Limited Partners have power to constrain the general partner (who clearly is a beneficial owner).

Second, consider the very recent amendments to the Delaware General Corporation Law (“DGCL”) in response to the Delaware Chancery Court’s holding in West Palm Beach Firefighters’ Pension Fund v. Moelis & Co (“Moelis”) Feb. 23, 2024. In Moelis, the CEO had a contract with the Company that materially limited the power of the Board of Directors to act in a significant number of matters. Vice Chancellor Travis Laster issued a 133-page opinion finding the agreement was invalid, as it violated the Delaware Law that placed management and governance responsibilities in the Board. Because such arrangements are frequently used in venture capital arrangements as part of raising capital for new enterprises, the Delaware Legislature and the State’s Governor enacted amendments to the DGCL that expressly authorize such contracts. In the Moelis situation itself, Ken Moelis was a major owner and CEO so he would have had to be disclosed as a Beneficial Owner if Moelis & Co. had not been exempt from the filing requirements of the CTA because it is a registered investment bank.

But what of a start-up venture entity where a wealthy venture investor owns a 10% interest in the entity, but has a stockholder agreement that gives him substantial governance rights including the ability to veto or even overrule board decisions? Is that venture investor not a “beneficial owner”? Somewhat even more Baroque, what about the private equity fund controlled by a dominant investor, say William Ackman or Nelson Peltz? If that fund invests in the same start-up entity and holds a 10% interest, but also has a stockholder agreement giving the fund substantial governance rights, isn’t the controlling owner of the fund a “beneficial owner” of the start-up?

Finally, consider financing with a “bankruptcy remote entity” where the Board of that entity includes a contingent director chosen by the finance source. The contingent director does not participate in any part of the governance of the entity unless the entity finds itself in financial distress. The organizational documents of the entity provide that at that point, the contingent director can veto any decision to file for bankruptcy protection. At that point, the contingent director apparently becomes a “beneficial owner” of the entity, with the CTA filing requirements applicable. A more interesting question is whether the contingency arrangement in the organizational documents makes the contingent director a “beneficial owner” from the inception of the financing. Further, with respect to bankruptcy, key questions remain unanswered, such as whether the trustee in a Chapter 7 bankruptcy proceeding or a liquidating trustee in a Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceeding has a reporting obligation under the CTA.

This piece is not intended to identify all the situations that may give rise to “Stealth Beneficial Owners.” Rather, its intent is to raise awareness of the complexities involved in answering the initial question – WHO is a “beneficial owner”?

©2024 Norris McLaughlin P.A., All Rights Reserved

FinCEN Publishes Updated FAQs

Entities terminated in 2024 are required to file Corporate Transparency Act beneficial ownership information reports, as are administratively dissolved entities.

The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (“FinCEN”) recently published updates to its list of Frequently Asked Questions (“FAQs”) to assist entities in complying with the beneficial ownership reporting requirements of the Corporate Transparency Act (“CTA”).

Principal among these updates was FinCEN’s clarifying requirement that business entities terminated in the year 2024 (whether existing prior to 2024 or formed in 2024) are required to file beneficial ownership information reports (BOIR) under the CTA.

This filing requirement also expressly includes BOIR filings for administratively dissolved entities.

Each of these concepts were the subject of debate as to their applicability under the CTA prior to this FAQ release, with some conjecture that terminating an entity’s existence prior to its BOIR filing deadline would alleviate the need to make a BOIR filing – a position now refuted by FinCEN.

As Polsinelli has consistently advised, the obligation to file under the CTA has accrued for all entities in existence in 2024, only the deadline for filing the BOIR has not yet arrived. Entities are advised to file their BOIR prior to consummating their termination process.

The July 8 FAQs also included clarification on beneficial owner disclosure scenarios involving an entity fully or partially owned by an Indian Tribe.

FinCEN expects to publish further guidance in the future. The updated FAQs can be accessed here.

* * * * *

Several of the updates bear special note:

1. FAQ C. 12. – Reporting Company Status

Do beneficial ownership information reporting requirements apply to companies created or registered before the Corporate Transparency Act was enacted (January 1, 2021)?

FinCEN stated “Yes.” Beneficial ownership information reporting requirements apply to all companies that qualify as “reporting companies”, regardless of when they were created or registered. Companies are not required to report beneficial ownership information to FinCEN if they are exempt or ceased to exist (i.e., are formally terminated with the Secretary of State) as legal entities before January 1, 2024.

2. FAQ C. 13. – Reporting Company Status

Is a company required to report its beneficial ownership information to FinCEN if the company ceased to exist before reporting requirements went into effect on January 1, 2024?

A company is not required to report its beneficial ownership information to FinCEN if it ceased to exist as a legal entity (i.e., was formally terminated with the Secretary of State) before January 1, 2024. This means that the entity entirely completed the process of formally and irrevocably dissolving (i.e., was formally terminated with the Secretary of State). A company that ceased to exist as a legal entity before the beneficial ownership information reporting requirements became effective January 1, 2024, was never subject to the reporting requirements and thus is not required to report its beneficial ownership information to FinCEN.

Although state or Tribal law may vary, a company typically completes the process of formally and irrevocably dissolving by, for example, filing dissolution paperwork with its jurisdiction of creation or registration, receiving written confirmation of dissolution, paying related taxes or fees, ceasing to conduct any business, and winding up its affairs (e.g., fully liquidating itself and closing all bank accounts).

If a reporting company continued to exist as a legal entity for any period of time on or after January 1, 2024 (i.e., did not entirely complete the process of formally and irrevocably dissolving (i.e., terminating) before January 1, 2024), then it is required to report its beneficial ownership information to FinCEN, even if the company had wound up its affairs and ceased conducting business before January 1, 2024.

Similarly, if a reporting company was created or registered on or after January 1, 2024, and subsequently ceased to exist, then it is required to report its beneficial ownership information to FinCEN—even if it ceased to exist before its initial beneficial ownership information report was due.

A company that is administratively dissolved or suspended—because, for example, it failed to pay a filing fee or comply with certain jurisdictional requirements—generally does not cease to exist as a legal entity unless the dissolution or suspension becomes permanent. Until the dissolution becomes permanent, such a company is required to report its beneficial ownership information to FinCEN.

3. FAQ C. 14. – Reporting Company Status

If a reporting company created or registered in 2024 or later winds up its affairs and ceases to exist before its initial BOI report is due to FinCEN, is the company still required to submit that initial report?

FinCEN stated “Yes.” Reporting companies created or registered in 2024 must report their beneficial ownership information to FinCEN within 90 days of receiving actual or public notice of creation or registration. Reporting companies created or registered in 2025 or later must report their beneficial ownership information to FinCEN within 30 days of receiving actual or public notice of creation or registration. These obligations remain applicable to reporting companies that cease to exist as legal entities—meaning wound up their affairs, ceased conducting business, and entirely completed the process of formally and irrevocably dissolving—before their initial beneficial ownership reports are due.

It bears note that, if a reporting company files an initial beneficial ownership information report and then ceases to exist, then there is no requirement for the reporting company to file an additional report with FinCEN noting that the company has ceased to exist.

4. FAQ D. 17. – Beneficial Owner

Who should an entity fully or partially owned by an Indian Tribe report as its beneficial owner(s)?

An Indian Tribe is not an individual, and thus should not be reported as an entity’s beneficial owner, even if it exercises substantial control over an entity or owns or controls 25 percent or more of the entity’s ownership interests. However, entities in which Tribes have ownership interests may still have to report one or more individuals as beneficial owners in certain circumstances.

Entity Is a Tribal Governmental Authority. An entity is not a reporting company—and thus does not need to report beneficial ownership information at all—if it is a “governmental authority,” meaning an entity that is (1) established under the laws of the United States, an Indian Tribe, a State, or a political subdivision of a State, or under an interstate compact between two or more States, and that (2) exercises governmental authority on behalf of the United States or any such Indian Tribe, State, or political subdivision. This category includes tribally chartered corporations and state-chartered Tribal entities if those corporations or entities exercise governmental authority on a Tribe’s behalf.

Entity’s Ownership Interests Are Controlled or Wholly Owned by a Tribal Governmental Authority. A subsidiary of a Tribal governmental authority is likewise exempt from BOI reporting requirements if its ownership interests are entirely controlled or wholly owned by the Tribal governmental authority.

Entity Is Partially Owned by a Tribe (and Is Not Exempt). A non-exempt entity partially owned by an Indian Tribe should report as beneficial owners all individuals exercising substantial control over it, including individuals who are exercising substantial control on behalf of an Indian Tribe or its governmental authority. The entity should also report any individuals who directly or indirectly own or control at least 25 percent or more of the ownership interests of the reporting company. (However, if any of these individuals own or control these ownership interests exclusively through an exempt entity or a combination of exempt entities, then the reporting company may report the name(s) of the exempt entity or entities in lieu of the individual beneficial owner.)

© Polsinelli PC, Polsinelli LLP in California

Investing in SAFE and Convertible Note Rounds ꟷKnow Your Bedmates!

Early-stage companies often rely on Simple Agreements for Future Equity (SAFEs) and convertible promissory notes to raise capital either prior to a company’s first priced preferred equity round, or to raise bridge capital between priced equity raises. In addition to the economic terms, investors considering participation in these financings should seek visibility as to the other investors in the round, and the potential misalignment of incentives among those investors.

Raising funds via SAFEs and convertible notes has a number of advantages for the issuer, not least of which is the speed with which such financings can be achieved. SAFE and convertible note financings involve significantly less documentation, legal lift, and expense than a standard preferred stock financing. Further, depending on how a SAFE or convertible note is structured, it can allow an early-stage company experiencing rapid growth (and, accordingly, valuation) to raise capital without selling equity at a valuation materially lower than the valuation it can justify in the next 12-24 months.

Similarly, SAFEs and convertible note rounds can appeal to early-stage investors. Again, the documentation is relatively straightforward and, to a large extent, consistent from transaction to transaction. Further, more recent iterations of Y-Combinator’s form SAFE include investor-favorite provisions that protect investors from dilution associated with the issuance of other convertible instruments.

That said, most SAFEs and convertible promissory notes include amendment provisions providing that their terms can be amended or waived with the approval of holders representing a majority of the total invested amount. Such amendments can fundamentally change the terms on which investors originally based their decision to participate in the SAFE or note round. For example, common amendments include reductions in the conversion discount, valuation cap, and/or required equity financing threshold at which the SAFE or note is required to convert. Perhaps more drastic, we increasingly see companies raising significant funds in multiple SAFE or note rounds without ever needing to do an equity financing prior to a liquidity event. In those instances, it is not uncommon for the company to get a majority-in-interest of the SAFE or noteholders to convert into equity on terms that bear little or no relation to what was contemplated in the original investment instrument.

Of course, you may ask, why would a majority-in-interest of the SAFE or noteholders agree to an amendment or adjustment that is not in their best interests? The answer is that savvy founders will often ensure that a majority-in-interest of the investors are “company-friendly,” with incentives that may be very different than those of a passive investor. For example, founders and their friends and family may control a majority of the round. Similarly, SAFE and noteholders may already have equity interests in the company, such that they see a net benefit to agreeing to changes in their note or SAFE terms that, viewed in isolation, are subpar.

Accordingly, before making a material investment in a SAFE or convertible note financing, investors should have a clear understanding of the maximum amount that can be raised, and the likelihood that a significant number of those investors may sign off on amendments that undermine the original deal terms.

© 2024 Winstead PC.

Understanding the Enhanced Regulation S-P Requirements

On May 16, 2024, the Securities and Exchange Commission adopted amendments to Regulation S-P, the regulation that governs the treatment of nonpublic personal information about consumers by certain financial institutions. The amendments apply to broker-dealers, investment companies, and registered investment advisers (collectively, “covered institutions”) and are designed to modernize and enhance the protection of consumer financial information. Regulation S-P continues to require covered institutions to implement written polices and procedures to safeguard customer records and information (the “safeguards rule”), properly dispose of consumer information to protect against unauthorized use (the “disposal rule”), and implementation of a privacy policy notice containing an opt out option. Registered investment advisers with over $1.5 billion in assets under management will have until November 16, 2025 (18 months) to comply, those entities with less will have until May 16, 2026 (24 months) to comply.

Incident Response Program

Covered institutions will have to implement an Incident Response Program (the “Program”) to their written policies and procedures if they have not already done so. The Program must be designed to detect, respond to, and recover customer information from unauthorized third parties. The nature and scope of the incident must be documented with further steps taken to prevent additional unauthorized use. Covered institutions will also be responsible for adopting procedures regarding the oversight of third-party service providers that are receiving, maintaining, processing, or accessing their client’s data. The safeguard rule and disposal rule require that nonpublic personal information received from a third-party about their customers should be treated the same as if it were your own client.

Customer Notification Requirement

The amendments require covered institutions to notify affected individuals whose sensitive customer information was, or is reasonably likely to have been, accessed or used without authorization. The amendments require a covered institution to provide the notice as soon as practicable, but not later than 30 days, after becoming aware that unauthorized access to or use of customer information has occurred or is reasonably likely to have occurred. The notices must include details about the incident, the breached data, and how affected individuals can respond to the breach to protect themselves. A covered institution is not required to provide the notification if it determines that the sensitive customer information has not been, and is not reasonably likely to be, used in a manner that would result in substantial harm or inconvenience. To the extent a covered institution will have a notification obligation under both the final amendments and a similar state law, a covered institution may be able to provide one notice to satisfy notification obligations under both the final amendments and the state law, provided that the notice includes all information required under both the final amendments and the state law, which may reduce the number of notices an individual receives.

Recordkeeping

Covered institutions will have to make and maintain the following in their books and records:

  • Written policies and procedures required to be adopted and implemented pursuant to the Safeguards Rule, including the incident response program;
  • Written documentation of any detected unauthorized access to or use of customer information, as well as any response to and recovery from such unauthorized access to or use of customer information required by the incident response program;
  • Written documentation of any investigation and determination made regarding whether notification to customers is required, including the basis for any determination made and any written documentation from the United States Attorney General related to a delay in notice, as well as a copy of any notice transmitted following such determination;
  • Written policies and procedures required as part of service provider oversight;
  • Written documentation of any contract entered into pursuant to the service provider oversight requirements; and
  • Written policies and procedures required to be adopted and implemented for the Disposal Rule.

Registered investment advisers will be required to preserve these records for five years, the first two in an easily accessible place.

COPYRIGHT © 2024, STARK & STARK
For more news on SEC Amended Regulations, visit the NLR Securities & SEC section.

Paperless Power: Exploring the Legal Landscape of E-Signatures and eNotes

In an era characterized by rapid technological advancements and the profound shift towards remote work, the traditional concept of signing documents with pen and paper has evolved. Electronic signatures, or e-signatures, have emerged as a convenient and efficient alternative, promising to streamline processes, reduce paperwork, and enhance accessibility. Organizations are increasingly embracing e-signatures for a wide range of transactions, prompting a closer examination of their legal validity.

WHAT IS AN “E-SIGNATURE”?

An e-signature encompasses any electronic sound, symbol, or process associated with a record and executed with the intent to sign. These can range from scanned images of handwritten signatures to digital representations generated by specialized software.

GOVERNING LAW:

The governing law for e-signatures in the United States includes both state-specific laws, like those based on the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA), and the federal ESIGN. ESIGN applies to interstate and foreign transactions, harmonizing electronic transactions across state lines. Many states, including Massachusetts, have adopted UETA, reinforcing the legal standing of e-signatures within their jurisdictions (MUETA).

VALIDITY AND REQUIREMENTS:

Generally, e-signatures are legally binding in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. However, certain documents like wills, adoption papers, and divorce decrees are excluded from the scope of ESIGN and MUETA to safeguard consumer rights and maintain traditional legal practices.

The following components must be present for e-signatures to be fully protected and upheld under ESIGN and MUETA:

  • Intent: each party intended to execute the document;
  • Consent: there must be express or implied consent from the parties to do business electronically (under MUETA, consumer consent disclosures may also be required). In addition, signers should also have the option to opt-out;
  • Association: the e-signature must be “associated” with the document it is intended to authenticate; and
  • Record Retention: records of the transaction and e-signature must be retained electronically.

Meeting these requirements ensures that e-signatures have the same legal validity and enforceability as traditional handwritten, wet-ink signatures in Massachusetts.

ENFORCEABILITY OF E-NOTES AND CONCERNS FOR FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS:

An eNote is an electronically created, signed, and stored promissory note. It differs from scanned signatures on paper or PDF copies. Governed by Article 3 of the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC), eNotes are considered negotiable instruments and therefore require special treatment. ESIGN provides a framework for their use, emphasizing the concept of a “transferable record.” This electronic record, meeting UCC standards, grants the same legal rights as a traditional paper note to the person in “control.” The objective of “control” is for there to be a single authoritative copy of the promissory note that is unique, identifiable, and unalterable. Therefore, proving authenticity and lender control over eNotes can be complex.

In Massachusetts, specific foreclosure laws require the presentation of the original note. Thus lenders should be cautious with eNotes, as possessing an original, physical note greatly reduces enforceability risks.

Further, financial institutions often face heightened scrutiny when using e-signatures due to the sensitive nature of financial transactions and the potential risks involved to ensure security, compliance, and consumer protection.

RECORDABLE DOCUMENTS:

E-signatures have become widely accepted for recording purposes, including in real estate transactions, due to their convenience and efficiency. The implementation of e-signatures for recording has been facilitated and standardized by legislation such as the Uniform Real Property Electronic Recording Act (URPERA). While URPERA offers a comprehensive framework for electronic recording, its adoption varies from state to state. In Massachusetts, URPERA has not yet been formally adopted, leaving recording procedures subject to individual county regulations.

BEST PRACTICES:

Despite the legal recognition of e-signatures under both ESIGN and MUETA, to ensure compliance, organizations should adopt the following best practices:

  1. Obtain Consent: Obtain (and retain) affirmative consent from parties to conduct transactions electronically.
  2. Association: Establish a clear and direct connection between an electronic signature and the electronic record it is intended to authenticate.
    • Embedding: One common method of meeting the association requirement is embedding e-signatures directly within electronic documents.
    • Metadata and Audit Trails: Another method is using metadata and audit trails. Metadata contains signature details like signing date, time, signer identity, and transaction specifics. Audit trails chronicle all document actions, reinforcing the link between signatures and records.
  3. Ensure the Integrity of Electronic Records
    • Authenticity and Integrity: Use secure methods to authenticate the identity of signatories and ensure the integrity of the electronic records. This can include digital signatures, encryption, and secure access controls.
    • Single Authoritative Copy: For transferable records (eNotes), ensure that there is a single authoritative copy that is unique, identifiable, and unalterable except through authorized actions.
  4. Maintain Accessibility and Retainability: Ensure that electronic records are retained in a format that is accessible and readable for the required retention period. This includes being able to accurately reproduce the record in its original form.
  5. Security Measures: Implement robust cybersecurity measures to protect against unauthorized access, alteration, or destruction of electronic records. This includes using firewalls, encryption, and secure user authentication methods.
  6. Provide Consumer Protections: Ensure that consumers have the option to receive paper records and can withdraw their consent to electronic records at any time.
  7. Legal and Regulatory Updates: Keep abreast of any updates or changes in the legal and regulatory landscape regarding electronic transactions and records. Adjust policies and practices accordingly to remain compliant.

CONCLUSION:

While e-signatures offer significant benefits for modern commerce, including efficiency and convenience, their adoption requires careful consideration, especially regarding legal and regulatory compliance. By adhering to best practices and remaining vigilant, businesses and individuals can leverage e-signatures effectively in today’s digital economy.

© 2024 SHERIN AND LODGEN LLP
For more news on Financial Institution Legal Compliance, visit the NLR Financial Institutions & Banking section.

UK Regulators Publish Final Securitisation Rules

On 30 April 2024, the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) published a policy statement (PS24/4) setting out its final firm-facing rules relating to securitisations and summarising feedback to its earlier consultation for the UK securitisation markets (CP23/17). The Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA and together with the FCA, the Regulators) also published a policy statement, in parallel with PS24/4, on its final firm-facing rules for those firms over which it has supervisory responsibility (PS7/24). This also follows the PRA’s own parallel consultation (CP15/23).

Background 

As part of the UK’s post-Brexit regulatory reforms, the UK government is working to repeal and replace retained EU financial services law with new UK domestic rules. In July 2023, the UK government published a draft statutory instrument (SI) to replace the UK’s onshored version of the Securitisation Regulation (UK SR).

Following the publication of the SI, the PRA launched CP15/23 on its proposed firm-facing requirements on 27 July 2023 and the FCA launched its parallel consultation CP23/17 on 7 August 2023. Both of these consultations are explored in further detail in our previous article (available here). While there is some duplication between the two rulebooks, the Regulators noted that they have coordinated their approach with a view to creating a coherent framework.

The Final Rules 

In PS24/4, the FCA has sought, among other things, to incorporate the feedback received on its draft rule proposals set out in its final rules, which are called the ‘Securitisation (Smarter Regulatory Framework and Consequential Amendments) Instrument 2024’.

PS24/4 makes the following key amendments to CP23/17:

  1. Timeline for implementation. The Regulators have confirmed the implementation timeline for the requirements (see the Next Steps section below), which allows for a six-month transition period for pre-implementation securitisations.
  2. Due diligence – public vs private securitisations. The FCA has adjusted the wording of its final rules to accommodate both public and private securitisations. Specifically, they refer to information provided ‘before pricing or original commitment to invest’ (in appropriate places) to reflect that private securitisations do not have “pricings” per se. In addition, the FCA has included guidance to reflect the fact that ‘pricing’ in the Simple, Transparent and Standardised (STS) template is to be understood as also including the ‘original commitment to invest’.
  3. Due diligence – disclosures by ‘manufacturers’. The FCA has adjusted the due diligence requirements for secondary market investors in relation to disclosures made by ‘manufacturers’ (i.e., the term used by the FCA as shorthand for originators, original lenders, sponsors and/or securitisation special purpose entities, each as defined in the UK SR) by:
    i) introducing a distinction between primary and secondary market investments, so that secondary market investors are not required to conduct due diligence on documents and information that are no longer relevant (e.g., information provided prior to initial pricing such as at issuance, etc.); and
    ii) clarifying that investors are required to conduct due diligence on the most up-to-date information available at the time of the investment, as opposed to documents from the timing of ‘pricing’ or ‘commitment’.
  4. Delegation. The FCA has clarified that it is possible for an institutional investor to delegate its due diligence requirements to an entity that is not an institutional investor, subject to the institutional investor retaining the responsibility for compliance with due diligence requirements. In practice, this means that institutional investors will no longer be able to delegate the responsibility for compliance with the due diligence requirements to AIFMs that are not authorised in the UK, as such AIFMs no longer fall within the definition of an ‘institutional investor’ under the SI.
  5. Risk-retention. The FCA has clarified the scope of the prohibition on hedging of the material net interest required to be retained under the risk retention requirements. Specifically, the FCA has confirmed that hedging in these circumstances is permitted for institutional investors so long as it does not compromise the alignment of interest, in line with the EU’s Risk Retention Technical Standards (Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2023/2175). In addition, the FCA confirms that there is no need for risk retention in the context of securitisations of own-issued debt instruments, including covered bonds.
  6. Alignment with the PRA. PS24/4 aligns its drafting with that of the PRA rulebook in areas where the rules are similar – both in the language and ordering of the FCA’s rules. The FCA has stated that in a number of cases, however, it has retained the language on which it consulted where, for example, it considered it provided clarity. In non-shared areas, such as STS provisions, the FCA has retained the language and structure of the rules as proposed in CP23/17.

The FCA’s final rules will be included in the FCA’s securitisation sourcebook (known as SECN) alongside the final FCA securitsation reporting templates, which are in the same form as those currently in effect. Similarly, the PRA’s final rules will be implemented into the PRA rulebook by adding a new Securitisation Part, with consequential amendments to the Liquidity Coverage Ratio (CRR) Part and the Non-Performing Exposures Securitisation (CRR) Part.

Next Steps 

The implementation date for the FCA and PRA rules is 1 November 2024, subject to revocation of the UK SR and related technical standards.

The commencement order that will bring into force the revocation of the UK SR and related technical standards has not yet been laid before Parliament. HM Treasury anticipates making this commencement order later this year once the SI comes into force. The FCA has stated that it will consider delaying or revoking the rules if the commencement order is not made.

The Regulators plan to consult on further changes to their securitisation rules in Q4 2024/Q1 2025, although timings are potentially subject to change. In this second consultation, the Regulators plan to review the definition of public and private securitisations and the associated reporting regime, among other areas for policy consideration.

EU Divergence

HM Treasury and the Regulators have generally sought to retain the existing onshored Securitisation Regulation and associated technical standards in the FCA and PRA rulebooks, save for some targeted adjustments. These adjustments will lead to some potentially notable divergence between the UK’s new regime and the regime in the EU, including in relation to the following:

  • Template requirements. While the EU requires institutional investors to ensure disclosure templates are completed regardless of whether the sponsor, originator or SSPE are located in or outside of the EU, UK institutional investors are only required to ensure that certain prescribed information is provided, regardless of the format. Instead, UK sponsors, originators and SSPEs are under a separate obligation to comply with transparency requirements including the use of disclosure templates.
  • Originator sole purpose test. SECN references certain factors to be taken into account when assessing whether an originator has been established and is operating for the “sole purpose” of securitising exposures. The EU regime has a similar test, but focuses on whether the securitisation and related risk retention assets are the “sole or predominant source of revenue” of the originator. The UK’s regime does not set the same hurdle for meeting the sole purpose test, instead referring more generally to the retainer’s ability to meet its payment obligations.
  • Change of risk retainer. Under the EU’s rules the holder of a retained interest may not sell, transfer or otherwise surrender its rights in relation to the retained interest, unless due to its insolvency, “legal reasons beyond its control”, or where there is retention on a consolidated basis. The new UK regime does not include “legal reasons beyond its control” as a reason to disapply the sale restriction.

PS24/4, PS7/24, CP23/17, and CP15/23 can be found here, here, here and here, respectively.

©2024 Katten Muchin Rosenman LLP
For more news on FCA Securitisation Rules, visit the NLR Financial Institutions & Banking section.